mmm 



RNITURE 



DESIGNING AND 



DRAUGHTING 



ALVAN CROCKER NYE, t 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

Chap...L.t?. Copyright No 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




CARVED LOLIS XVI. ARM CHAIR. 



FURNITURE 

DESIGNING AND 

DRAUGHTING 



NOTES ON 

The Elementary Forms, Methods of Construction and 
Dimensions of Common Articles of Furniture 

BY 

ALVAN CROCKER NYE, Ph.B. 

INSTRUCTOR IN FURNITURE DESIGNING 
PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN. NEW YORK CITY 



^ 



NEW YORK 
WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK 

1900 

v.- 



TWO COPIES HECElVtL). 

Library of Congret% , ^ 

Office of tht y>(^ 

MAY 1« 1900 

htglstcr of Copyrlgktfc 

9^ a^ /^, /^ ^c 



<^';« 



SECOND COPY, 



62B69 

Copyright 

By ALVAX C. NYE 

lltOO 



6 













PREFACE 



THIS book for the use of students, architects antl oiIkts wlu) at 
times find it desirable to make drawings for furniture, has 
been prepared from material collected during an experience of 
some years as a designer of furniture for several of the most 
important furniture-makers in New York City. 

It is assumed that a knowledge of how projection and perspec- 
tive drawings are made has been obtained, and that the general 
principles of design and ornamental forms are familiar to the 
reader. It describes methods of construction as far as they relate 
to draughtsman's work, but stops there, for it is not the intention 
to make this an instruction book for those who wish to become 
cabinet-makers. The " man at the bench " may, however, find the 
parts relating to designing of interest even though the practical 
details are already known, and seem to him incomplete because 
many mechanical matters that he realizes are necessary in making 
furniture are not mentioned. 

Construction details that have been omitted were not thought 
essential to the draughtsman, and if known by him would be of no 
service in making the design or working drawing, as they would 
not appear on either. 

A. C. N. 

New York City, 1900. 



CONTENTS 



Page. 
Preface 3 

CHAPTER I. 
Definitions, Classification. Proportion 9 

CHAPTER n. 
Tables, Turnings, Cross Veneering 15 

CHAPTER HI. 

Chairs, Seats, Sofas, Upholstery 36 

CHAPTER IV. 
Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads 57 

CHAPTER V. 
The Drawer 81 

CHAPTER VI. 
Ornamentation of Furniture 86 

CHAPTER VII. 
Theories of Design, Rendering 94 



LIST OF PLATES 



Frontispiece. Louis XVI. Cliair. 

I. The Construction of a Table. 

II. Chair and Table Legs. 

III. French Chair Leg. 

IV. Drop Leaf Tables. 
V. Pivoted Top Tables. 

VI. Extension Tables. 

VII. Chairs. Front and Side Elevations. 

VIII. Arm Chairs. Seat Plans. Stretchers. 

IX. Outline of Chair Backs. 

X. Composition of Chair Backs. 

XI. Construction and Upholstery of Chairs. 

XII. Composition and Proportion. 

XIII. Case Construction. 

XIV. Mouldings and Panels. 
XV. Hanging Doors and Lids. 

XVI. The Drawer. 

XVII. Ornamental Chair Backs. 

XVIII. Louis XV. Table. 

XIX. Louis XVI. Cabinet. 

XX. XV. Century Cabinet. 

XXI. Louis XV. Arm Chair. 



ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE 
TEXT 



Page. 

Bedstead framing 79 

Card table hinge 31 

Effect of mouldings 62 

Joints 65 

Meeting stiles for hinged doors 75 

Meeting stiles for sliding doors 75 

Pin hinge 72 

Secretary hinge 76 

Turnings 21 



INDEX 



Arm chairs, Plans of, 46. 

Applique metal work, 91. 

Bandy legs, 16. 

Brackets, supporting leaves, 28. 

Banister back chair, 45. 

Bearer, 82. 

Bedstead, 78. 

Bookcase, 77. 

Burnt ornament, 92. 

Built-up table top, 24. 

Butt joint, 66. 

Cane seats, 56. 

Case work, proportion, composition, .57. 

Case work, construction, 65. 

Classification, 9, 10. 

Castors, 47. 

Carving, 86, 87, 88. 

Chair, plan of arm 46; arms 48; ban- 
ister back, 45; carved back. .S8; cane 
seat, 56; construction, 45; dimensions, 
46; elementary forms, 37; four backed, 
46; for use at table, 48; Hepplewhite, 
49; parts of 37; rush seat, 5.'i; seat 
dimensions, 47, 48; stretchers, 46; 
scissor pattern, 38; slope of back, 49; 
upholstered, 49; Windsor, 38: wood 
seat, 45. 

Cover, for upholstery, 55. 

Cross veneering, 24. 

Composition of case work, 57. 

Construction of bedsteads, 79; drawers, 
•SI; case work, 65; chairs, 45; tables. 
23. 

Draw table, 51. 

Drawer, hanging, 82; slides, 85; triangu- 
lar, 85; depth of, 81; pivoted, 85; for 
music cabinets, 83; construction, 81; 
runners, 82. 

Desk lids, 76 

Dimensions of bedsteads, 80; ease work, 

78; chairs. 56; component parts, 11; 

sofas, 50; tables, 23. 

Disposition of ornament, 93. 
Doors, sliding, 75; swinging, 72. 
Dove tail, 67. 
Dowel joint, 24, 66. 
Drop leaves, 27. 
Dust panel, ,S2. 
Extension table, 31. 
French bandy legs, 16. 
First things considered, 11. 
Finger joint, 28. 
Four-backed chair, etc., 4<!. 
Furniture, what is good, 12: plan, 100. 
Glazing, 71. 

Hepplewhite chair, 34, 49. 
Hinging, 71. 

Joints, 66; knuckle, 28; finger, 28; mitre, 
66; mortise and tenon, 67; rule. 27. 



Leaves, for table, 27. 
Lining-up, 24. 
Marquetry, 92. 
Mediums, for sketching, 63. 
Meeting stiles, 72. 
Mirrors, 71. 
Mortise and tenon, 67. 

Mouldings, 61; effect of, t>2; ornamenta- 
tion, 65. 

Music cabinets, 85. 
Ornament, 93; painted, 92. 
Over-stuffed work. 53. 
Originality, 94. 
Ormolu, 91. 

Plan, furniture, lOd; chair seat. 3S. 
Panels, 67. 

Painted ornament, 92. 
Perforated carving, 88. 
Pivot hinge, 72; top table. 28. 
Pivoted drawer, 85. 
Rush seat chairs, 55. 
Rule joint. 22. 
Runners, 82. 
Scale of sketches, 9(i. 
Stability, of tables, 22. 
Seats, plans of. 38; wood, 45. 
Sketch, purpose of, 95; scale, 96; medi- 
ums, 99. 

Styles, 94. 

Spread, of table feet. 22. 

Stretchers, chairs, 46; table, 21. 

Shelving, 77. 

Slides, for extension tables, 32; drawers. 
88. 

Sliding doors, 75. 

Shield-back, 38. 

Stiles, meeting, 72. 

Scissor chair, 38. 

Sofas, 56. 

Stub tenon. 67. 

Stumbling block, 11. 

Tables, construction of, 23; draw, 33; 
definition of, 15; extension. 31; frame 
of, 22; height, 22; leaves, 27; logs, 16; 
overhang. 22; parts of, 15; spread of 
feet, 22; stability of. 22; tops, built-up, 
24. 

Tracings paper, use of, 96. 

Turnings. 21. 

Tufting, 54. 

Upholstery, 49; block. 53. 

Varnishing, 86. 

Veneers, 91 ; built-up, 24. 

Vernis Martin, 92. 

Wood, qualities of, Ki; seat, 45. 

Windsor chair, 3*^. 

Wrought iron, 91. 



FURNITURE. 



CHAPTER T 
Definitions, Classification, Etc. 

FURNITURE designing is the art of delineating and ornament- 
ing household effects so they l)tconie objects of beauty and 
pleasure as well as service. Furniture designing means giving 
thought and study to the proposed plan ; the seeking for the best 
forms, sizes, proportions, materials, and workmanship to produce 
what is required. It may be necessary to make several attempts be- 
fore success is attained, but the result will be the best individual 
effort. In this sense designed furniture should be useful, handsome, 
and well made of properly selected material used in an attractive way. 
Furniture may be made without any special study or thought, 
the result being mechanical, careless, and lacking in artistic qualities. 
A mechanic may make something that is serviceable but extremely 
ugly, and without design. If, however, he has the personal quality 
that causes him to take pride in the appearance of his work com- 
bined with the knowledge of how to proceed to obtain the beautiful 
he will become a designer, for he will put his mind to his work, 
giving it a personality, independent of chance effects. 

Furniture made without this thought and study brings to the mind 
at once the feeling that something is wanting. Either the lines indi- 
cate an indecision in the mind of the maker, or the methods employed 
in its construction show no desire to produce the best effect with the 
material. 

Furniture can be divided into three classes, according to use. 

First, DOMESTIC FURNITURE, including that for dwellings 

of every rank. 



]0 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION. ETC. 

Second, CIVIL FURNITURE, that for 'public buildings and 
places of business. 

Third, ECCLESIASTICAL FURNITURE, for churches. 

Furniture may also be divided into two groups named for the 
methods of construction. The first, Framezvork, includes seats, tables, 
mirrors, screens, etc.. and all articles not boxed in. The second, 
Caseivork, includes chests, bureaus, sideboards, desks, etc., and all 
articles which are cased (boxed) in by panel work or its equivalent. 

The materials from which furniture is usually made are wood, 
metal and stone. The use of metal and stone need not be considered 
here, because these materials are employed for extraordinary furni- 
ture of a more or less fixed architectural character not strictly within 
the general accepted meaning of the word. The natural material is 
wood, which has many qualities to recommend it. It is abundant, 
easily obtained, and easily prepared in convenient form for use. It 
is of light weight so that objects made from it are not heavy enough 
to become inconvenient, and it is sufficiently strong to serve all prac- 
tical purposes. 

The ease with which it is worked into the forms desired, and the 
facility with which necessary repairs may be made are recommenda- 
tions in itS' favor. In addition to these advantages, which may be 
called technical, there are the aesthetic and physical reasons why 
wood is superior to other materials. It is agreeable to the eye in its 
natural state, which furnishes a large variety of colors, but if these 
do not meet the requirements stains of any shade can be applied with 
ease. It also assumes, under proper conditions, a polish of a greater 
or less degree. There are no objectionable sensations experienced 
when it is touched by the hand, as it is not hard or harsh, nor is the 
temperature unpleasant. 

The kind of wood used may have an influence on the character of 
the design. Some woods are of a coarse, open grain hardly adapted 
to small details or fine work. Such woods are oak and ash. They are 
well suited to large, heavy articles for severe usage, and of broadly 
executed designs. Woods like mahogany, satinwood and maple are 
of a fine, close grain and admit of a more delicate treatment. Mould- 
ings and carving in these woods may be smaller in detail than seems 
l)roper for those of a coarser grain. This feeling is quite well recog- 
nized by everyone, so that furniture for halls, libraries, etc., is often of 
the coarse woods, reserving those of finer grain for the living-room, 
parlors and bedrooms. 



FIRST THINGS CONS WERT. P. n 

The character of the wood need not affect the quaHty of the design, 
as each variety may receive equal aesthetic treatment. The bold, 
coarse work may have just as nuich feeling- expressed in the design as 
the more delicate. It is not the material used that is the most im- 
l^ortant consideration, but the form and proportion of the article, and 
the harmony of the design with the surroundings. It is the study of 
these conditions that gives opportunity for the designer to display his 
skill. He asks himself: Shall the article be .'square or oblong? Shall 
it he high or low in proportion to the width? Or if, as frequently is 
the case, one or two dimensions are given, what will be the best pro- 
jiortion for the other? 

After the general proportion and form is determined, then the dimen- 
sions of the component parts are considered, and it may happen that 
these will be the only ones left for the designer,,as the conditions of the 
problem sometimes fix all other sizes. By the component parts is 
understood (taking a table as an example) the relation of the size of 
the leg to the whole, the thickness of the top, and its projection ; the 
depth of the frame, etc. Such questions must be answered for every 
article, and on the solution depends the quality of the design. 

The stumbling block for beginners in design is the habit of thinking 
in feet and inches. One of the first questions usually asked by stu- 
dents is, how many inches wide shall this, or that, be made? There is a 
feeling that because it cannot be answered at once it is impossible to 
make the drawing correctly. It is not necessary, in most instances, to 
know the figure, as the dimension is dependent entirely on the 
sense of proportion and practicability. All dimensions fixed by com- 
mon usage are known or given to the designer; the others should be 
determined by the knowledge obtained from experience and observa- 
tion. As the designer becomes proficient he learns that within limits 
a square post of a given size may be used in certain places, but 
whether it will look better a little larger or a little smaller is deter- 
mined by judgment. 

The sizes of material found in stock need not interfere with the ex- 
pressing of ideas that may occur. Lumber can be obtained of almost 
any size desired, and if it is not at hand the next largest dimension can 
readily be cut down, at the small expense for waste and labor, which 
in special work is hardly to be considered. It certainly is not advis- 
able to spoil a good design in order to use material without cutting a 
little to waste. 

A good piece of furniture must he adapted to the intended use, and 



12 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC. 

• 
it should not defy the laws of nature even in appearance. It is not 
sufficient for it to be strong, but it must appear so, that no thought of 
weakness may occur; nor ought it to appear unstable. It must be 
well constructed, otherwise it soon becomes broken or rickety ; and 
when new, if carelessly made, there will be something about it to 
cause dissatisfaction. It ought to be pleasing to the eye, not only in 
design but in workmanship, and its form should express its pur- 
pose. Excessive ornamentation is to be avoided. It is better to have 
too little ornament than too much. 

Construction has been placed second in these requirements for 
good furniture, believing that by following the laws of utility and con- 
struction natural and rational forms will be obtained. A designer 
should, then, have a little knowledge of the principles of construction, 
and in the following chapters the usual methods will be described as 
far as is necessary for the needs of a draughtsman. 



CHAlTi:U il. 
Tables. 

THE table consists of a Hat, level surface, suitable to receive what- 
ever may be placed upon it, supported on one or more up- 
rights. The word table properly applies to the top which in early 
times was called a board, and it was, indeed, nothing more, the sup- 
ports being trestles not attached in any way to the top itself. The top 
may be made of wood, marble, glass, etc., and is spoken of accord- 
ingly as a wooden table, marble table, glass table, etc. If the material 
is not mentioned it may be supposed to be of wood. The name of the 
material is sometimes linked with the geometrical form of the top ; 
thus, a square table, a circular marble table, an oval slate table, etc. 

Tables are made high or low, according to the purpose for which 
they are used, and may be either with or without drawers. They are 
composed of three partS' — the top, the frame and the legs. Plate L 
The top has been described above. The frame is composed of hori- 
zontal rails immediately beneath the top and parallel with its edge. 
It is sometimes omitted on small tables, called "stands," but is com- 
mon for the larger varieties. It serves as a means of binding the sup- 
ports and top together as well as strengthening the top, which might 
otherwise sag beneath its load. The depth of frame gives apparent as 
well as real solidity to the whole structure. The legs are the supports 
for the table, and may be secured in several ways to the frame, or its 
equivalent. There may be but one leg, or post, directly under the 
center of the top, and ending at the floor in a spreading foot, thus 
forming a "pillar table." There may be two uprights, one at the 
middle of each end of a rectangular top, terminating in spreading 
feet, usually connected by a horizontal rail, near the floor. There may 
be three, four, or more legs, but four are most frequently used. These 
legs may be of an endless variety of shapes, and decorated by mould- 
ings, carving, inlay, etc. 

On Plate II. are shown twelve legs which can be termed elementary 



1 6 TABLES. 

forms, as nearly all others can be reduced to one of these. They are 
shown as chair legs, but they difTer from table legs in proportions 
only. By comparing the plans and elevations the drawings explain 
themselves clearly ; but it is desirable to study particularly numbers 
1 1 and 12. Eleven is the "bandy leg" with the ball and claw foot used 
on "Dutch" and "Colonial" furniture. In many ways it resembles 12, 
which is the "Louis XV." or "French bandy leg." This latter is 
much lighter, more graceful and ornamental than the Dutch form, 
but it at times seems too frail to support the weight it carries ; and, 
again, the curved lines make it appear as if bending beneath the 
strain. In many of the exaggerated patterns of these legs the violent 
curvature causes the defects not only to become more prominent but 
actually makes the leg weak. If the curvature is great the vertical 
grain of the wood crosses it at one or more points, and at each of these 
places there is danger of the leg breaking. By examining the draw- 
ings Nos. II and 12 (a larger drawing of 12 in three positions is 
shown on Plate III.) it will be seen that a vertical line may be drawn 
throughout the entire length of the leg without intersecting its 
curved outline. This vertical line represents, then, a portion of the 
stick from which the leg is cut that has not had the strength weak- 
ened. The leg increases in strength directly in proportion as the dis- 
tance between the contour lines and such a vertical widens. The 
draughtsman is to observe that, although moulded and cut in irregu- 
lar forms, the cross section of this leg at any place is practically 
square, and that in making it a square stick is first sawn so as to have 
the shape shown as front and side elevation (Plate III.) and then 
turned over at right angles, on the vertical axis, and the same form 
cut again. As a result the diagonal view will curve as shown. When 
the leg is complete and casually examined it is seen in the diagonal 
view. It is with the recollection of such a view in mind that the de- 
signer too frequently lays out the curve for the front and side eleva- 
tion, giving them the sharp sweep he really intends for the diagonal 
resultant curve. When the work is made from such a drawing the 
draughtsman is surprised to find how great the curve is. In design- 
ing the bandy leg the proper method is to draw its three elevations 
and plans as on Plate III. and study the outlines carefully till sure 
they are right. 

Whatever may be the shape of table legs they should be propor- 
tioned to the dimensions of the top that they may not seem either too 
frail or stronger than necessary for the purpose of support. Occa- 



CHAIR AND TABLE LKG.S 

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ELEVATIONS 




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FRENCH CHAIR LEG 





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TURNINGS. 



21 



sionally it may be desirable to make them so small and delicate thai 
the table becomes shaky, owing to the elasticity of the wood, though 
they may be quite strong enough in appearance, and in reality, to 
sustain the weight intended to be placed on them. When such is the 
case the legs can be connected, near the floor, by horizontal braces, 
known as stretchers. Plate VIII. shows three arrangements of 
stretchers as applied to chairs, and those for tables are similar. 

TURNINGS 





Stretchers are sometimes used for sesthetic reasons when not needed 
to stiffen the support. Tables having legs like Xos. 7 and 8, Plate II., 
do not look well without stretchers ; the baluster forms of the turn- 
ings and the heavy foot of each leg seeming to demand a framework 
binding the supports together. 

Turnings are used continually in the construction of furniture, and 
they always appear smaller than a square stick of the same dimen- 
sions. This is apparent in the above illustrations. No. i 
shows the projection of the corner of a parallelopiped beyond the 



2^ TABLES. 

inscribed cylinder turned from it. The angular projection exists 
whenever an abrupt change from a square to a turned section is made. 
As this is objectionable in furniture work, it is cut away by rounding 
ofif the angle as in No. 2, or by moulding it as in No. 3. Neverthe- 
less if, as in these examples, the diameter of the cylinder and the side 
of the square are the same the turning appears so much smaller than 
the square portion of the stick that the transition is too great. 

When the design will admit the square parts of the stick are cut 
down after the turning is made, so that they are a trifle smaller than 
the turned portions. This makes the two sections seem more nearly 
of the same dimensions, and is shown in No. 4, whore a torus and 
fillet are also introduced to make the change of form more gradual. 
This same feature is shown in No. 5, where the angles of the square 
are cut away. The square is smaller than the diameter of the turning, 
and the torus is introduced to grade the transition. No. 6 is a longi- 
tudinal section of No. 5. The use of the torus or a bead between the 
square and turned parts of a post seems desirable in most cases, what- 
ever the profile of the turning. No. 7 shows it in use on a twisted 
turning. 

The depth of the frame of the table is largely a matter of individual 
taste. If, however, the table is one at which a person is to sit, with his 
knees beneath it, the frame must not be so deep as to reduce the space 
between its lower edge and the floor to less than two feet. 

An important condition of beauty in a table is its stability. It 
should not appear insecure on its feet, as happens if the legs are placed 
too far beneath the top. A safe guide is not to make the spread of the 
feet of a table less than two-thirds the spread of the top ; or, in other 
words, the overhang is one-sixth of the top. The overhang may be 
considerably more than this before the table becomes dangerously in- 
secure, but it will have, nevertheless, an appearance of instability, es- 
pecially if the width of the top is less than the height above the floor. 

It is well to round off slightly the corners of rectangular tables, 
that they may not present a sharp angle. 

The size of a table is determined by its use and the location it is to 
occupy. Unless intended for a special purpose it is thirty inches 
high. 

Possibly the most important uses to which tables are put are those 
of dining and writing. For either of these a table thirty inches high 
can be and is used continually, but there are those who find this some- 
what too hi^h. A dining table should be sufficiently low that a per- 



DIMI-XSIOXS ()/■• TAIU.r.S. 27, 

son need not raise the dhows wlicn eullini; his fooch and that his plate 
rests well below him. If a writing- table is too high it is tiresome to 
sit at and write. Many dining tables and writing tables are, therefore, 
made but twenty-nine inches high. The side table used in dining 
rooms as a place from which to serve dishes or to carve should be 
thirty-six inches high. 

A dressing table is made thirty inches high unless the person to use 
it requests that it be made otherwise. Parlor, fancy tables, etc., in- 
tended for ornamental use only, are made to correspond with the sur- 
roundings of the rooms in which they are placed, and may be any de- 
sired height, as they are neither intended to sit or stand at. The fol- 
lowing list will give the dimensions of tables of average sizes that 
have been made and found satisfactory. It will serve as a guide or 
starting- point in laying out new designs: 

DIMENSIONS OF TABLES. 

Variety. Length. \Vi;Uh. Height. Remarks. 

Bedrocm ;n 1:2 29 

18 IS 30 Ccmracde. 

Bijou .",ii ::•_' .-jO 

Carving table 42 2I> 3«) 

Dressing table 'M* 20 oO 

Extension table (iii Wi 30 Rcund. 

ri4 r>4 30 Square. 

Library table TA 41 30 Oval. 

42 27 20 

r.4 •^A 29 

(!0 30 29 

Tra table 1."'. 13 20 Rcund. 

LS IS 24 

^23 17 29 Upper shelf. / 

> 30 23 IS Lower Shelf. \ 

Note: All dimensions are in inches. 

The parts of a table have already been named ; it remains to see how 
they are put together. 

The frame is joined to the legs either by the mortise and tenon or 
hy doweling. The former joint was the old way of framing, but since 
the introduction of dowels the tenon has largely gone out of use 
among furniture makers. They consider it old-fashioned. And 
owing to the shrinkage of the tenon or the carelessness with which it 
is made it does not seem as strong or equal to a dowel-joint. 

The mortise and tenon consists of a tongue (tenon) cut on the end 
of one of the joined pieces so as to fit tightly in a cavity (mortise) 
s'unk in the other piece. In table work the tenon is on the end of 
the frame and may or may not be its full width, while the mortise 
is in the leg. Plate I. 



24 



TABLES. 



The dowel joint derives its name from the dowel, a wooden pin, 
used for fastening the two' pieces together by inserting part of its 
length in one piece, the rest of it entering a corresponding hole in the 
other. Where possible more than one dowel is used. In table work two 
or more are fitted in holes bored for them in the end of the frame, 
and in the proper position on the legs are corresponding holes in 
which the dowels fit, and are glued when the two parts are brought 
together. Some small tables are constructed without a frame; in 
place of it there is a wooden cleat fastened to the underside of the 
top and the full diameter of the leg is inserted in this block ; or if 
the leg is of large size it is tenoned into the block. 

The top of a table may be solid or veneered. When small and 
cheap work is desired it can be made of solid wood ; but otherwise 
it should be built up and veneered. Solid wood tops shrink, crack, 
or warp. The only sure way of avoiding these unfortunate occur- 
ances is to "build-up" the top. The building up process consists in 
constructing a core of some common, well-dried, lifeless wood, pre- 
ferably chestnut or pine. This core is of several strips of wood 
doweled together at the edges until a board is made about the size 
of the required top. These strips are arranged in a way that the an- 
nular rings curve in opposite directions in each alternate piece. The 
core is next cross veneered on both sides with hardwood, generally 
oak. A cross veneering is laid so that the grain is at right angles to 
that of the wood on which it is applied. In table work it is at right 
angles to the grain of the core and the finish veneer ; both of these 
naturally follow the length of the top. All round the edge of 
the top, after it is cross veneered, is fastened a strip of the finish 
wood of the table. (Plate I.) Finally, both sides are again veneered 
with the finish wood; that is, if the wood is not too expensive. If 
it is costly a cheaper veneer is placed on the underside. 

When the design calls for the edge of the top to appear thick it is 
a needless waste of material to construct it of wood the full thick- 
ness, besides making an unnecessarily heavy piece of furniture. To 
avoid this, and yet obtain the appearance wanted, a frame of wood is 
fastened to the underside of the otherwise thin top, giving the thick- 
ness required. This frame is called the lining piece and the top is 
said to be lined up. 

The method of fastening the top to the frame of the table varies 
with the class of work, and the size. If it is a small table no special 
care is taken, the fastening consisting of screws driven through the 



DROP LEAF TABLES 



Plate IV. 




(S) ^w - ® 

PLDIHG bUaU5 m 3UPP0RTinG LEAV[5 




TARLIl UIAVIIS. 



27 



rail into the underside of the top. If the rail is narrow and thiek 
enough the screw is set straight through it. If, however, it is a wide 
rail the screws are driven in recesses cut for them on the inner side. 
Most tables are too large to admit of this method. A top fastened as 
just described is held fast to the frame so if shrinkage takes place 
there is a strain somewhere that may result in a cracked top. To 
allow for any movement that may occur short blocks having a tongue 
that fits securely in a groove cut on the inner side of the table frame 
are screwed to the underside of the top. These blocks hold the top 
firmly in position and yet if a shrinkage takes place they are free to 
move in the grooved frame. - 

Tables are frequently provided with a drawer either in the frame 
or hung beneath the top on cleats. How drawers are made, and the 
different kinds, are described in Chapter V. 

There are occasions that require a table larger than it is conven- 
ient to keep standing continually in a room. In early times when 
tables were nothing more than boards resting on trestles, if they were 
not needed, the board was turned up against the wall and the trestles 
stowed away. When the top and the supports became fastened to- 
gether methods were invented for reducing the size of the table, that 
it might not take up too much space ; or for enlarging it for special 
purposes. One of these methods is the use of leaves or flaps, that 
fold down against the side of the legs. Two things are to be ob- 
served in such tables ; the way the leaves are hinged, and how thev are 
supported when raised. 

In cheap vvork the edges of the leaves and top, where they meet, 
are cut straight and square, forming a plain joint, and the leaf is 
hung with a hinge on the underside. Plate I\'., No. i. When hung 
in this way a small crack is seen between the top and the leaf as the 
latter hangs down, and the hinge also shows. 

In better work both these things are considered faults and to avoid 
them the rule joint is used. Plate I\'., No. 2. This joint is made by 
moulding both the edge of the leaf and the top where they meet : tlie 
moulding on the leaf being the reverse of that on the top. The top 
is cut W'ith a projecting tongue rounded like a quarter cylinder, and 
the leaf is hollowed to receive it. The hinges are sunk into the under- 
side of the top and leaf with their center corresponding with the cen- 
ter of the quarter round moulding of the meeting edges. Then, as 
the leaf swings up or down its rebated edge fits snugly against the 
moulded edge of the top. The hinge is practicall}- concealed and 
there is no open joint. 



28 TABLES. 

There are small tables made with two leaves hinged in a similar 
way to that just described, so when both are down the table is no 
wider than the cylinder plus the thickness of the leaves. 

Leaves may be supported by brackets attached to the frame and 
swinging out under them. The brackets may be hung with metal 
hinges, but better ways are illustrated on Plate IV., Nos. 3 and 4. 
These drawings show folding brackets somewhat similar in construc- 
tion made by fastening to the side rail of the table frame a block with 
one end cut so as to interlock with one end of the bracket. A metal 
pin through the two pieces where they interlock serves as an axis 
on which the bracket turns. In No. 3, the finger joint, the corners 
of the working parts are bevelled ofif that the bracket may turn. In 
No. 4, the knuckle joint, they are rounded so the parts fit closely and 
are in contact in w'hatever position the bracket may be. The finger 
joint can be made the strongest as more wood may be left between 
the pin axis and the ends of the tongues than in the other. The 
knuckle joint is considered the neatest, but it is more difficult to con- 
struct, and as the bracket is hidden from view the difference in ap- 
pearance does not warrant its use. 

Sometimes when the depth of the frame will permit a portion of it 
may be cut so as to swing on a pin at the middle, and thus when 
turned at right angles to the frame one half is beneath the top, the 
rest acting as a support for the leaf. Plate IV., No. 5. 

Bracket supports are not strong, and a table with a large leaf is 
unstable. To obviate this tables are made with a leg that swings out 
under the leaf giving it support, and stability to the table. When 
such a table has a stretcher the movable leg is strengthened by fas- 
tening it to a hinged bracket at the stretcher level in addition to the 
one on the frame. Another way of supporting drop leaves is to ar- 
range slides that may be pulled out from the table frame beneath the 
leaves when they are raised. 

The tables described thus far have the top fixed, but there are those 
'with the tops pivoted so when they are turned about the pivot a 
quarter way round the leaves will be supported by the frame of the 
table, which in the revolved position of the top, lies beneath them. 
Two varieties of this style are illustrated on Plate V. The first is an 
old style drop-leaf table pivoted at the middle of the top. By rais- 
ing both leaves and turning the top on its pivot the ends of the frame 
are brought beneath the leaves to support them. The second table 
is in more common use. The top is of two parts, of the same size 



PIVOTED TOP TABLES 



Plate V. 




DK0PL[ArTA5L[ 



■^">, rP°5ITI<'n op Top 




FADING T^T 



/T\ 



EXTIiXSIOX TABLES. 



31 



and shape, hinged together so one pari folds over on the other. 
When folded the top is but half the size it is when open, and can be 
turned on the pivot to a position over one end of the frame with the 
hinged edge directly across the middle. The upper leaf may then 
be unfolded and will' rest on the other end of the frame. Such tables 
are u-^nnllv square, when open, and arc spoken of as card tables. 




M 



Cahd-tabll HinCiE.. 

The hinges used for joining the two ixuls of the top are not ordni- 
ary butts. They are of a special form, as will be seen from the ad- 
joining illustration, and are placed at each end of the leaves with the 
screws driven into the edges. This avoids the appearance of any 
objectionable metal work on the surface of the table top, as would 
l)e the case if ordinary butts were used with their entire flaps exposed 
to view. The card-table hinge has no projecting knuckle above the 
surface of the table, as its parts, instead of turning on a single pin, 
are joined by a link turning on a pin in each flap of the hinge. This 
link is flush with the edge of the table when the leaves are closed, and 
flush with the top when they are open. There are other forms of this 
hinge available. 

Other ways of increasing the size of tables are shown on Plate VI. 
These are extension tables. 

The upper one is the old "draw-table," and is not used much now. 
A study of the drawings will show that the leaves enlarging the table 
are slides that pull out from beneath the top. Each slide is about 
half the length of the top. so the table is nearly doubled in length when 
both are pulled out. It should be noted, too, that to be of service 
the slide must be pulled out its full length, otherAvise the top and slide 
are not on the same level. This means that there are but two changes 
in size for this kind of a table. Either it is increased by the whole of 
one leaf or by both. The top of the table is not solidly fastened to 
the frame, but is free to move vertically, a little, though prevented 
from moving in any other direction by keys fastened to its underside 
and passing through a rail, the same thickness as the leaves, fastened 



32 



TABLES. 



to the frame. Each sHde has two bearing pieces fastened to its un- 
derside, one at each end. The bearing pieces are as long as the 
frame of the table, or a little longer, and when the slide is drawn out 
one end of them bears against the underside of the rail to which the 
top is keyed, while their lower edge rests on the frame of the table, 
notched to receive it. They are cut at the proper bevel, so when 
drawn out the top and slide are on a level, and the slide is held se- 
curely in place against the edge of the top. 

The common extension table is familiar to every one. The 
illustration presents it in the simplest form. It is really a table with 
a telescopic frame, and provided with extra sections of a top that may 
be added till the frame is extended its full length. The leaves are 
made of sizes from twelve inches to twenty wide, and the tables are 
made to extend as desired, the average being from twelve to sixteen 
feet. 

Each manufacturer has his own method of constructing the tele- 
scopic frame, or slides as they are called, the differences depending 
on patented devices for holding the slides together. The principle, 
however, is the same in all. Plate VL illustrates a section through 
two slides showing one device. The sides of the slides are grooved 
to receive keys that dovetail them together. Each slide when pulled 
out to the extreme laps over those adjoining it about one-third, and 
stops are provided to prevent their being separated more than this. 
The slides are of wood, an inch and a half to two inches thick, nearly 
as wide as the table frame is deep and about as long as the under- 
side of the table, when closed, will permit. The number of slides de- 
pends on the length to which the table is to be extended. There are 
two sets ; an odd number on each side of the table. The outer pair 
are screwed firmly to the underside of one-half of the top, and the 
inner pair to the other half. All the slides, except these, are free to 
move. As most tables extend too much for the slides to support 
the weight at the middle, it is usual to provide a center leg. This leg 
is fastened to the middle of a transverse rail screwed securely to 
the middle slide of each group. 

The frame of the table when extended is separated at the middle, 
and if a cloth cover is not used the slides are exposed to view. This 
interrupted frame is unsightly, and each leaf may be provided with 
its section of frame so that when in place no gap is left between the 
extended ends. There are card tables made so two of the legs and one 
side can be pulled out to support a leaf when it is open. They are 
small extension tables, the frame itself forming a part of the slides. 



EXTKX^ION TAbLt:^ 



Flatl VI. 



A DRAW TABLL 



SLIDE. CLOStD 



'''^. SLIDE DWWN OUT 




ttllARQCD SiCim 5H°WIN(i 
l\tY THROUGH RAIL *A" 1° 
H°LD PP IN F1ACE.^ 




^ 



-StCTiOM THROUfiH 
Top ^F PR.W TABLE ) 




A ^ECTrN "F T/;< 



^T\ 




CO 

O 

—3 

w 
So 










a 




•m "n ^— 1 T~i 








en II n rr u 


i 








s S L" " ■ '1 












g s 



CHAPTER III. 
Chairs, Seats, Sofas. 



T- HE parts of a chair are the leRS, the seat frame, the back, and 

The s::t"::L,!::r„f Lst instances an the rails are doweUed to 

the itr^^ back posts. The seat frame is stififened by corner blocks 

c eted ecurely to the inner side. If these blocks are w.de and 

veil fastened they add very materially to the strength of the cha.r. 

Tl c tplXery blocks mentioned on page 3. also st.ffen the tra.n- 

ckar in the mind to do so. It is, however, only by means of the pro- 
let on drawings that the true forms of the different parts may b 
knln and even though the sketch is made at once w.thovU the.r a.d 
a kno vl edge of what they are like is necessary. Chairs, when drawn 
in s"d elevation, assume one of the hve elementary forms shown on 
Plate VII.. where attention is called to the relatton of *e support ng 
members o a vertical line. These outlines are drawn from actual 
Examples and are at the same scale for purposes of companson^ 

The front elevation will appear like one of the three types show, 
on th s plate. The one on the right, if drawn >n stde elevat.on won d 
have a straight back and straight legs; the one on the left would 
hav the "df elevation like one of the first three illustrated : the one 
in tie middle would appear in side elevation much the same as >t 
doe n the front, i. e., all legs and the back inclined. It .s a draw ng 
of a Windsor chair, with a solid wood seat, somettmes called he sad- 
de sea because of its shape. The legs and back P°f = "l" d for 
in tl s seat by inserting the full size of the turn.ng .n holes bored for 



38 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS. 

them, and the seat frame is omitted ; but the legs are tied together by 
stretchers. 

Italian and German chairs, with backs and legs of solid boards 
elaborately carved, appear in the same inclined form when drawn in 
elevation. The "scissor" pattern was originally a folding chair, but 
although the form is retained it is not always made to fold, though 
both folding and fixed chairs present a similar elevation. The plan 
of a chair seat approximates a square, a triangle, or a circle. The 
principle varieties with the position of the legs, in relation to the 
frame, indicated by the shading, are shown on Plate VIII. The 
square plan, though not uncommon, is less frequently seen than the 
trapezoidal. This latter is perhaps the most used, either with the 
straight frame, as on the left of the dotted line in the illustration, or 
curved as on the right. Triangular seats though used in olden times 
are not common now, except for corner seats. 

The circular and composite plans are constantly employed. The 
composite form made up of curves and marked "French," is the 
plan of the Louis XV. arm chair given as an example ot rendering, 
Plate XVIII., and the plan on the right riiarked "Windsor," is that of 
a Windsor chair similar to the "inclined form," Plate VII. 

The outline of nearly all chair-backs is either rectangular or trap- 
ezoidal. Plate IX. If of the first, the back posts are perpendicular 
to the floor line and the legs are the same distance apart at the floor 
as at the seat level. 

If of the second form, the back posts are inclined to the floor line 
so that the legs are nearer together at the floor than at the seat level, 
and the back of the chair is proportionately wider at the top than it is 
at the seat. Though a chair may have a more complex and elaborate 
back than any of those taken as examples for illustration, an analysis 
of the outline will result in finding that it is based on one of these 
figures. The other four shapes illustrated are not as frequently used 
as the first two. This is particularly true of the polygonal and semi- 
circular patterns. 

Both of these are taken from French examples. The elliptical 
back is also a favorite form for French chairs. The shield-back is 
characteristic of chairs made by Hepplewhite about 1793, and called 
by many "Colonial." It is well to observe, while studying these 
outlines, a constructive principle common to all of them. Whatever 
;he outline of the back it is made up of two vertical posts extending 
from the floor to a horizontal rail connecting them at the top ; at the 



TlAuVI 



ARMCHAIRS 



SEAT PLMS 

SHOWING POSITION Of LtGS. 




pLAttlX. 



REQTANOl/UR 



OUTLINE OF CHAIR BACKS 

^\\ TRAPEZ01D/»L Q2) 



w 



J 



Jl /\ 




® 



/7=^ 




Stni- CIRCULAR, 



® 



a 











-^ 



COMPOSITION or BACK 



Plate X. 



© 



SPLAT 
VERTICAL 



© 



BANISTER 
VERTICAL 



tCOC^tCrJl 



© 






yojioou 



OiK> 



© 



R . . 



^T\ 



ft a s ft « 




F°UR BACK 
HORIZONTAL 



® 



a 



OUTLlfIL Of PP RAIL5 




COSSTRICTIOX or BACK. 45 

sea. level is a l.orizon.al rail (sea. tran,e, ; and in so.ne ^^^^j"^ 
is another horizontal rail a. a greater or less d.stance aW I he seat^ 

The student is to notice especially that the uprtghts 'he '.ack leg 
are of one piece iron, the Boor to the top ra.l of the back Th,s . 
: en forgotten by beginners in chair designing, and weak almo 
intpossible, shapes are given to the back as a result. "= ^hpt a 
and shield-backs, though at first glance violating thts rule, are really 
composed of the parts as mentioned above. A larger drawmg of he 
,h eld-back is given on Plate X\II., showing by the dotted hues the 
P otngation of the lower part of the leg; and the jomts where the 
[op and bottom rails of the shield meet the uprights are also indicated. 
Allot er chair back is also shown on the plate illustrating the sanu,- 
pr n iple. There is but one exception to the above method o con- 
strtKtion, and that is, when a solid wood seat is used ; similar to the 
X seated Windsor; the German S.uklc. with turned legs ; and 
h Italian ScaMu.n. with its solid board supports. In this case h 
leg, and the back are separate. Each leg is inserted in holes lor the 
niirnose in the board seat. . . 

' Hrving determined on the outline of a chair back it is necessary 
to stidvtts composition, that is, to decide how the space wihinth 
outte'is to be Ireated. This question is sometimes decided be ore 
°he desi.ni is begun, as, for instance, when it is panelled or uphol- 
red tf. however, it is to be of some other pattern, study is neces- 
sary Aside from the methods just mentioned the back may be 

filling the space has been called a "banister back. Lut the slats are 

of a person sitting in the *-^ , ^^.'^'^f.f ^^ ' ^ptng of the back 
ture of the slats is sometimes substitutea tor tne i> „ 

"aairs made with turned posts and having horizontal slats in the 



46 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFA^\ 

back were named by the number of slats. As, three backed, or four 
backed chairs ; that is, three or four horizontal slats. Five backed 
chairs were quite uncommon. 

It is perhaps almost unnecessary to say that both horizontal and 
vertical slats may be used in the same back. There is an endless 
variety of ways in which these slats and balusters may be grouped, 
spaced, and proportioned to fill the space well. Whether the slats 
or the spaces shall be the broadest? What is the best outline for the 
balusters? Are the kind of questions the designer is to ask himself, 
striving always to obtain the beautiful rather than the eccentric and 
curious forms. 

The outline of the top rail of the "rectangular" and "trapezoidal" 
backs has its influence on the appearance of the chair, and it may be 
more or less ornamented. Four forms are shown on Plate X. which 
explain themselves. 

In Plate VHI. are shown five plans of arm chairs. One of these 
has the arm straight, following the plan of the seat. Two of the 
others indicate how the space between the arms is made wider than 
the seat at the back by curving the arm ; the front post remaining in 
the same position as in the first plan. The plans drawn beneath the 
chair with the "receding arm post" show how the arm may be a 
compound curve or a continuation of the curve of the back. In the 
former not only does the curve give a maximum width between the 
arms, but it also permits of the front scroll of the arm turning out, 
thus preventing the chair from seeming narrow. 

In some chairs the plan of the arm follows the curve of the back 
so there is no angle where the two join. This is illustrated in the 
plan of a "Windsor" chair, where the piece from which the arm is 
cut is continuous from one side of the chair to the other, the slats of 
the back passing directly through it. 

Chair arms may be horizontal or they may slope to a greater or 
less degree with the highest point where they join the back. 
Stretchers are used to strengthen the chair. The legs when braced 
by them are more firm and less likely to loosen at the seat frame 
joint. Plate VIII. gives the plans of three arrangements of stretchers. 
When placed high enough to be out of the way of the feet of a person 
using the chair the stretcher may form a trapezoid parallel to the 
seat frame; or, if the chair seat is high and a foot rest is desired, the 
stretcher may be arranged this way and set low for the purpose. In 
olden times European chairs were always made high and with a foot 



niMliXSIOXS ()/• SI- AT. 47 

rest, that a i)crson inii;lu kccj) his feci off of the cold lloors. Now 
that it is not necessary to keep the feet away from the floor, it is not 
customary to allow them to touch the stretchers of chairs. These 
are, therefore, arranged diagonally between the legs of the chair ; 
or, the front and back legs are joined together by rails, while a third 
unites, the two side rails. This third rail may be set in any position, 
but frequently it is a little nearer the front than the back. 

One of the most difficult tasks the furniture draughtsman has is 
to design and lay out for the shop the drawing of a chair that will be 
satisfactory. No drawing is more deceptive than the full size for a 
chair, and it is by experience only that a draughtsman can judge what 
will result from the working drawing. Most draughtsmen of con- 
siderable experience when working- out a detail endeavor to have be- 
fore them a chair somewhat similar to the one they are drawing. 

A good chair should first of all be comfortable to sit in. If in- 
tended for general service it ought not to be too heavy to move about 
easily, and it should be well proportioned. 

In planning the seat determine its height above the floor, its width 
at the front, its width at the back, and the depth from front to back. 
These vary as desired, and what will make a satisfactory chair for one 
person, may be quite unsuited to another; consequently there are all 
sorts and sizes of chairs. It is, however, desirable to have a starting 
point from which to reckon, and experience has fixed a chair seat 
eighteen inches above the floor as proper, no conditions being given. 
If it is less than this it is considered low, and if more it is high. The 
purpose for which a chair is to be used also serves as a guide for di- 
mensions. If intended for use at a writing table eighteen inches will 
be satisfactory ; if for a dining chair eighteen and a half, or nineteen 
inches is not too high. Occasionally as high as twenty inches may 
be used. When the chair is not to be used at a table seventeen and a 
half, or seventeen inches high is satisfactory for most purposes. 

In making the drawing from which a chair is to be constructed 
care must be taken to determine whether it is to have castors or not. 
If it is to have them the leg must be shortened accordingly, for the 
average castor is one and five eighths inches high from the floor to 
the top of the plate screwed to the under side of the chair leg. 

The depth of the seat, that is, the distance from the front to the 
back, is varied with the height. It is not entirely a matter of appear- 
ance, though within limits it may be made to please the eye. Gener- 
ally, the lower the seat, the deeper it should be. If the chair seat is 



48 CHAIRS. SEATS, SOF^S. 

high, and too deep, the feet of the occupant will not rest on the floor, 
if he sits back in the chair. Such a chair is uncomfortable, and any 
one using it either sits on the front edge, perhaps tilting the chair 
forward on the front legs, or uses a foot stool. Either there is no 
support for the back or none for the feet when such a chair is used. 

A chair that is too low, and shallow in the seat, obliges the occu- 
pant to stretch his legs out in front or he becomes cramped against 
the back of the chair so that almost unconsciously he tips it back- 
wards. Many have tried to devise a rule by which the correct pro- 
portion between height and depth of seat can be determined, but 
thus far none seems to suit all conditions. Approximately, the sum 
of the depth of the seat plus its height is equal to thirty-five inches. 

Chairs for use at a table may be from fifteen to eighteen inches 
deep ; comfortable, upholstered chairs twenty inches deep ; large, 
low, upholstered chairs may be twenty-four inches deep inside meas- 
urement. The width of the seat, from side to side, may be any size 
called for by the character of the design, except in the case of an arm 
chair, when it must not be too narrow. 

Arm chairs are necessarily wider than others, in order that there 
may be room between the arms for a person to sit easily without feel- 
ing crowded. The space between the arms should not be less than 
twenty inches at the front edge of the seat, nor less than eighteen at 
the back. The arm ought also to be of such a height, slope, and 
length that it will form a convenient rest for the hand and forearm, 
as well as a side support for the body. Here again arises the condi- 
tions of the use of the chair; for, if it is to be used at a table the arm 
ought not to project forward in a way to prevent placing the chair 
as close to the table as is desirable for comfort. For such chairs the 
arm post, that is the upright from the seat supporting the arm, if a 
continuation of the front leg, is curved backiv^ard sufficiently to keep 
the scroll of the arm back of, or on a line with, the front edge of the 
chair seat. 

The arm post may, however, not be a part of the front post, but 
entirely independent. Then, it also receeds that the scroll of the arm 
may be kept well away from the front of the chair. Plate VIII. This 
arrangement has the advantage of leaving the front of the seat free 
from obstructions that too closely confine the sitter. 

Arm posts on the front edge of the seat interfere with ladies 
dresses, and in many of the French chairs the arm posts not only re- 
cced but curve outward at the same time, thus giving considerable 
more freedom for the person and the clothing. 



INCLINATION OF BACK. 4^ 

It is customary to make the width of the seat at the hack a trifle 
less than at the front, in order to avoid the optical illusion of its ap- 
pearing wider at the back than at the front, as is sometimes the case 
when the sides are parallel. This diflference in width is about two 
or three inches. 

Hepplewhite gives as the general dimensions of a chair: width in 
front 20 inches, depth of seat 17 inches, height of seat frame 17 
inches, (his chair seats are about 1-2 or i inch above the frame) ; 
total height 3 feet i inch.The height of a chair back is a matter of de- 
sign, and it may be proportioned accordingly. It may, or may not, 
be inclined to the seat ; its side posts may be slightly inclined, while 
the middle slopes considerably, thus providing a hollow in which the 
shoulders of the sitter rest comfortably. Modern chairs usually have 
the back inclined, though chairs for use in the entrance hall and 
dining-room are, perhaps, made with the back vertical. 

The amount of slope given the back depends on the use to which 
the chair is put. An easy chair reclines the most, and just as a low 
chair is deeper in the seat than a high chair, so, too, may the back 
slope more on a low seat chair than on a high one. A chair with 
arms may also have a back more inclined than one without. 

The appearance of stability is largely influenced by the inclination 
of the back. So much so, that it is found desirable in most chairs to 
slope the back legs outwards a little to counteract the apparent ten- 
dency of the chair to upset. An arbitrary rule is: the slope of the 
back for a chair without arms should not be more than one fourth 
the depth of the seat and chairs with arms not more than one half. 

The legs and rails of chairs should appear firm enough to sup- 
port, not alone the chair, but the person that sits in it. For chairs 
with straight legs, whether turned or square in section, the matter of 
strength is one of size only. The bandy-leg, however, requires more 
care that the curve may not be too great. Rococo work defies the 
laws of wood structure, yet it may be properly made so as, in a meas- 
ure, to reconcile the critic to its eccentricity. In describing the 
rococo table leg (page 14) it was told how to overcome the ap- 
parent, as well as actual, weakness of this form of support, and what 
was said then will apply as well to chair legs. 

Many chairs are more or less upholstered. It may be the seat 
only that is thus treated, or the entire woodwork, except perhaps the 
legs, may be hidden by a covering of upholsterer's work. 

The simplest methods of upholstering seats are the two padded 

4 



50 



CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS. 



varieties in which no springs are used. No. i, Plate XL, shows a 
cheap way when a hard seat is not objectionable, and it is desir- 
able that there should be a little elasticity. In the illustration the pad- 
ding is fastened directly to the frame of the seat so when complete it 
appears the same as an upholstered, spring seat. In some instances 
the padding is fastened to a separate, loose frame resting in a re- 
bate of the seat frame, and if the chair is turned bottom up the seat 
will fall out. Such is the way Chippendale and Hepplewhite chairs 
are often made. 

The foundation for the padded seat is webbing stretched as tightly 
as possible across the frame, front to back, and side to side. The 
widths interlace, over and under, each other so as to make a firm 
plaited mat covering the frame. On top of this a piece of burlap is 
stretched and tacked all round the edge of the frame. On the burlap 
is spread suflficient curled hair to make the requisite padding of the 
seat, and this is held in place by a piece of muslin, or cotton flannel, 
drawn tightly over it and tacked to the side of the frame. The web- 
bing and burlaps are tacked to the upper edge. The seat is now 
ready for any cover that may be chosen, and when at hand the up- 
holsterer spreads it over the muslin cover and tacks it to the frame. 
The tack heads are afterwards covered by a gimp, which is usually 
glued on, even though nails are afterwards driven in to apparently 
secure it. The seat just described is the simplest, as well as the 
cheapest form of upholstery permissible in good work. It has the 
disadvantage of being hard, and in a short time the webbing becomes 
stretched so the seat sags in the middle. 

A better seat, requiring a little more 'work, is shown in No. 2, 
Plate XI. It differs from No. i only in the amount of hair and the 
way it is used. As there is more hair than in the first instance, the 
seat frame is made lower that the extra quality of hair may not 
raise the seat too high. 

The hair is placed on the webbing foundation and covered with 
burlaps. The edges are then stitched by passing a needle in at the 
side, out at the top, and then back again to the side, and so forth, 
until the entire edge of the seat has been sewed in this way. When 
the edge becomes quite hard and firm with the amount of hair that 
has been stitched in it the middle of the seat is also sewed through 
and through until it is a trifle lower than the edges. This makes a 
firm, somewhat hard, hair cushion with its edge a little higher than 
the rest. The hollow is then well filled with hair, and over this the 



CONSTRUCTION AND UPHOLSTERY OF CHAIRS 




5LAT m ff^3mm 



■ UPHOLSTERY DLOCK 



/T\ 



IPHOLSTERY 



53 



muslin, and finally the cover is drawn. Such a seat has all the ap- 
pearance of one upholstered with springs, and is comfortable enough 
w liere something firm is wanted. 

No. 3 illustrates the spring seat. It differs from No. 2 in this re- 
spect: the webbing is fastened to the underside of the seat frame, in- 
stead of the top, and on it are placed the springs. Over them is 
stitched a burlap on which the hair or stuffing is placed. The re- 
mainder of the work is the same as for padded seat No. 2. The edge 
is stitched, hair is added, the muslin is drawn over, and finally the 
cover. 

If it is desirable to make the seat so that none of the woodwork 
shall show, no difference occurs until the cover is put on, when in- 
stead of fastening it, as illustrated, just above the lower edge of the 
frame, it is brought down over the frame and tacked to the under 
side. In such work cotton wadding is placed between the frame and 
the cover that the wood may not be felt, if the hand is in contact with 
the lov^^er part of the seat. 

Chair seats that are upholstered have a block of wood notched 
around the corner post on the inner side, and fastened to the top 
of the seat frame, where it joins the back. This is the "upholstery 
block," and is needed by the upholsterer to tack the cover on where 
it fits around the back post. The upper surface of this block is about 
one-half inch below the level of the finished seat. 

Chair backs may be upholstered in a manner similar to seats, and 
the methods are the same. The term "over-stuffed pieces" is ap- 
plied to furniture that is upholstered so that none of the framework, 
except the legs, is visible. No. 4, Plate XL illustrates an arm chair 
of this description, showing the framework and the method of cover- 
ing it. The frame is of hardwood, and is constructed the same as 
any other chair. The seat frame is set low in order that there may 
be plenty of room for large springs, making the seat soft and easy. 

Beneath the upper rail of tlie arm, and also of the back is a second 
rail left loose that it may be fastened where desired by the upholsterer. 
These rails are used by him for fastening the lower edges of the arm 
and back covers, which are put on after the seat is upholstered. 

The seat frame of overstufifed pieces should be so constructed that 
the webbing may be tacked to it at a point not more than eleven inches 
below the level of the top of the springs, if springs of usual dimen- 
sions are used. It may be less, if desired, for then smaller springs 
can be used, or large springs may be tied down. The top of the seat 



54 



CHAIRS, SEATS, SOIiAS. 



is about two and a half inches above the top of the springs. Soine- 
limes the seat frame is very deep, and were the webbing- tacked to 
its lower edge the springs would be much below the level required. 
In such instances either a strip of wood is fastened all round the inside 
of the frame to which the webbing may be tacked or else an extra 
loose frame is covered by webbing and set inside the seat frame at the 
proper level. 

The upper edge of the seat frame is usually about halfway between 
the level of the webbing and top of the springs. The method of up- 
holstering the seat and back when springs are used, is the same as 
described above for No. 3. In the work on the back, however, there 
will be noticed on the illustration a portion marked "roll." This is 
made of hair stitched in burlap to make a firm edge, all round the 
back frame, possessing elasticity enough not to feel hard when 
leaned against. Over this the covers are drawn. 

In good work the upholsterer carefully covers all edges of the 
wood with hair stitched in burlap and all flat surfaces with cotton 
batting, so that at no point is the wood beneath easily detected by 
the touch. 

Overstuffed pieces do not admit of a great variety of good forms. 
There are no end of patterns, or designs, in which an attempt has 
been made to produce something new and good ; but most of them 
are unsatisfactory. 

The beauty of this class of work is dependent on the absence of 
fussy, unnecessary trimmings, and on the outline. This outline 
ought to be one that seems the natural result of using upholsterers' 
materials, and the simplest best fills this requirement. Upholstery 
may be either plain or tufted, and the choice is at times a matter of 
taste, but frequently tufting is a constructive necessity. When the 
seat level is high above the frame tufting of the front edge prevents, 
to a degree, the sagging of the covering when the chair is occupied 
and the springs compressed. A border formed by a line of stitching 
along the front about half the height of the seat sometimes serves 
the same purpose. These methods also prevent the cover from ap- 
pearing too large after the piece has been used awhile and the stuf- 
fing is matted down. It is also advisable to tuft the seat and back of 
very large pieces for the same reason ; or, as a decorative feature if 
the covering material is plain, unfigured goods. The tufting should 
always be proportioned to the size of the article. Where the surface 
to be upholstered is concave tufting is necessary, otherwise the ma- 



TUB corfiR. 55 

tcrial can not readily bo made to follow the curve. The cjrdinary 
form of tuftinj^: is to sew the goods in at the four corners of a diamond, 
but occasionally for concave surfaces it becomes more like a series of 
rolls side by side and the full length of the hollow. 

The material used as a cover for over stuffed pieces largely affect^ 
their appearance ; goods that would be well suited to one chair may 
not look right on another. The color is governed by the decora- 
tions of the room in which the furniture is placed. It need not, per- 
haps should not, be the same color as the walls since contrast is de- 
sirable, but it must be in harmony with the surroundings. The pat- 
tern of the goods may be of a historic style similar to the design of 
the room, though it does not seem necessary to confine oneself too 
closely, for in many instances the figure of the goods is entirely lost 
in the tufting, and a color effect is all that impresses itself on the 
mind. This is largely true also of pieces without tufting. 

It is well to avoid patterns too pronounced in form or out of scale 
with the article covered. Then, too, it is not desirable to use de- 
signs composed of objects that a person would not care to sit on, as 
shells, sharp tesellated forms, musical instruments, buildings, land- 
scapes, etc. The suitable materials are those woven w-ith an "all 
over" ornament of a size adapted to the intended use, and treated in 
a flat way without imitating modelling in relief. 

Over stufifed articles have no woodwork, except the legs, show- 
ing and they sometimes seem too light for the mass above, though 
really they may be more than strong enough. If fringe is hung 
from the lower edge of the upholstery to the floor the feet are hidden 
and the general mass is apparently resting on the floor, the fringe 
serving to carry the color and lines to that level. The length of the 
fringe may be about one-half the height of the seat. The best taste 
admits of only simple fringes free from small drapings, "skirts," or 
elaborate nettings that soon become dirty and shabl^y. When the 
supports of the furniture are sufificiently heavy to suggest no thoughi: 
of weakness, and there is a frame of show wood below the upholstery 
no fringe is required. 

The rush seat chair is not in common use. as it was a number of 
years ago, yet occasionally it is wanted. The frame for such a seat 
is shallow, not more than an inch and a quarter, and has all its edges 
rounded. Sometimes the frame is nothing more than turned sticks 
over which the rushes are twisted and woven into a .^c"t entirely cov- 
ering them. 



56 



CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS. 



The cane seat requires a flat frame usually above the seat frame, 
though it may replace it. On the inner edge of this frame holes are 
bored through which the cane is drawn and stretched across the open- 
ing until a seat is formed. 

The sofa is practically an extremely wide chair, and the data given 
for chairs may be applied to it. 

The following is a table of dimensions of various chairs taken from 
satisfactory examples : 

CHAIR DIMENSIONS. 

Arms. 

Seat. Depth Height 

« Width.—- > Out- ' Back. v from 

Varietj\ Height. Front. Back. side. Height. Slope, flocr. 

Bedroom chair. ... 18 16 13 17 34 21/2 

Baby's high chair\ . 20 14 12 131/2 37 .3 27 

Cheek chair* 17 29 25 271/2 44 41/2 

"Chip" chair 17 22 17Vi 17 3U 

" 18 22 17 17'54 38 

Dining chair 20 24 22 22 45 2V> 2(ii/2 

" 20 19 17 lU 43 2 

" 19 19 17 IS 38% 11/2 .. 

" 18 20 15 15 3(j 2 

Easy chair 17 33 2S •24 43 5 21 

Easy chair^ 17 27 25 27i^ 41 (ii/i 26 

"Hepplewhite" chair 18 21% 17 17 34% 2 27 

Parlor chair' 16% 24 19% 18% 36 4 25% 

Parlor chair- 14 21 21 *18 21) 

Parlor chair= 18 26% 22% 2(1% 37 4 25 

Parlor chair* 18 20 13 19 36 3 23 

Piano bench 20 40 .. 15 

Reception chair^ . . 17 21 19 21 30 2 

Rrcking chair 16 23% 20% 19% 41 2 24 

"Roundabout" chair 18 18 18 18 29% 28% 

"Rubens" chair 20% 17% 17% 15 4(> <► 

"Slipper" chair. ... 12 18 15 17 28 3 

'Foot rest 12 ins. above floor; 'overstuffed; ''French cane seat and 
back; *wood arm and back; "upholstered seat. 
♦Depth inside. 

SOFA DIMENSIONS. 

Arms. 
Seat. Depth Height 

--—Width. — ^ Out- . Back. > frrm 

Variety. Height. Front. Back. side. Height. Slope, flocr. 

Small 18 43 40 21 32% 3 24 

Extra large 16 78 76 36 29 2 25 

Ordinary sofa 15 54 51 24 34 5% 24 

Lounge 17 68 68 28 35 2% 29 

17 57 57 29 23 12 34 

Note. — All dimensions are given in inches. Heights are above the 
floor. Slope of back is measured, at seat level, to a perpendicular 
through highest point of the back. 



CHAPTER IV. 
Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads. 

The beauty of casework is dependent on: Firstly, its proportion as 
a whole That is whether the height, the width, and the depth are of 
dimensions that appear well together. In most problems at least 
one of these dimensions is fixed by some requirement of utility. The 
designer is then expected to decide the other two. 

Secondly, the disposition of the parts (i. e. panels, framing, archi- 
tectural niembers, such as columns, mouldings, etc.), of which the 
case is composed has its influence on the design. Whether the panels 
are large, or small ; whether they are arranged in pairs, or grouped 
in another way; whether the mouldings are heavy or light; etc., are 
the questions studied. 

Thirdly: The ornamentation. This is the last point to be consid- 
ered, because if the general form is bad no amount of decoration, 
whatever its quality, will make a good piece of furniture. As the 
subject of the ornamentation of furniture is treated as a separate 
chapter (VI) it need not be discussed further here. 

In front elevation casework usually approaches more or less the 
form of a rectangle and the f^rst condition in its design is to find a 
method for determining the ratio of the sides of a rectangle most 
agreeable to the eye. This has already been studied by several writers 
with at least two solutions. 

One assumes a square as the starting point and implies that any rec- 
tangle having two sides equal to the sides of the square will be well 
proportioned if the other two sides are not more than twice its length. 
In other words, a well-formed rectangle is not more than two squares 
long. Plate XII. 

Another ratio given is that of two to three. Assuming that if the 
width of the rectangle is two, the length should be three. This ratio, 
of course, is included within the limits of the first method. 

For the purposes of designing it may he assumed that the rectan- 



58 CASEWORK. . 

gle, whether vertical or horizontal, represents the principle mass of 
the case. What is technically known as the body. To this may be 
added at the top the crowning members, and at the bottom the base 
on which the whole is supported. To the sides may be added the 
projections of mouldings, columns, brackets, or other decorative 
features. 

The relation of the various parts to each other and to the whole 
should be kept in mind. Often casework consists of an upper and 
lower section. The lower part must not only be sufificiendy strong to 
support what is above it, but it ought to appear so without seeming 
heavier than is necessary. The base or feet should be proportioned 
to the mass above and the crown members, well supported, are to 
be made large enough to serve as a finish for the case without appa- 
rently crushing it. 

The spacing and arranging of the principal lines dividing the case 
into panels, drawers, etc., is to be such as will give pleasing results, 
and there are an infinite number of arrangements possible. The 
whole mass may be divided into two equal parts by a post the same 
size as one on each corner of the cabinet. No. 3, Plate XII. This 
sort of a division has the disadvantage of causing the case to appear 
as if it were made of two smaller ones placed together, and as if the 
two parts were balanced on the middle line. It is not considered the 
best way of doing. 

A similar composition is one in which the case is divided into three 
parts with the middle one the smallest. This has the faults of the for- 
mer method though not in such a marked degree. When three di- 
visions are made the best appearance is obtained by making the mid- 
dle one larger than those each side of it. No. 6, Plate XII. Other 
arrangements are also shown on this same plate. 

As w^as mentioned above, furniture should be adapted to its use, 
and if possible its design should indicate the use. The location of an 
article in a room has its effect on the appearance. So much so, that if 
possible the designer should study the surroundings. He is then in 
a position to make a design that will harmonize with the decoration 
of the room, and an article of a size best suited to the space it will oc- 
cupy. He can also see how much light will fall on it and be governed 
somewhat by this in determining the size of the mouldings, etc. If 
the room is well lighted a moulded member if fine and delicate will 
show to advantage but in a dark corner larger moulding will be more 
suitable. 



i 



MOULDINGS. 6l 

As casework pieces are usually the larn:cst in the room they are 
quite prominent, no matter how simple they may be, and care must 
be taken not to make their presence obtrusive by over ornamentation. 
The decoration used should be appropriate, sparingly applied, and 
of the highest quality of execution. Casework approaches nearer to 
architectural designing than any other furniture draughting. In 
nearly every article mouldings are used that are identical with those 
of architecture. They are combined in the same way and their use is 
for much the same purpose. There are eight forms from which nearly 
all others are derived by combination or variation and their names 
are of importance as serving a means for description. 
Plate XIV. illustrates these mouldings as follows: 
The met is a narrow, flat surface, usually above or below another 
moulding, and it may be either a projecting or receding member. 
When below the surrounding surface it is a stink Met. 

The bead is a small, half-round moulding either projecting from or 
even with the surrounding surface. In the latter case there is a nar- 
row groove at one side, and it is called a quirked bead. 

The cavetto is a hollow moulding, the outline of which does not ex- 
ceed a quarter circle ; and the ovolo is the reverse of the cavetto ; that 
is, a projecting member of which the outline is a segment not exceed- 
ing a quarter. The cavetto and ovolo are not always circular in out- 
line. Any curve may be employed, but the circular or elliptical form 
are most common. 

The cyma recta, or ogee, has a profile composed of two arcs hol- 
low and convex, like a wave, the hollow at the top. The crown mem- 
ber of cornices is often made with this moulding. 

The cyma reversa, as its name indicates, is the reverse of the ogee ; 
the convex curve is. at the top and the concave below. 

The scotia is a concave moulding with the outline a segment of a 
circle often greater than a semi-circle. It is sometimes called a thumb 
moulding, and the hollow section is then composed of two tangent 
arcs of different radii. 

A torus is a large convex moulding usually with a semi-circular 
profile. When any of these mouldings are used beneath a horizontal 
surface forming an angle with a vertical one it is called a bed mould. 
Later we will see that mouldings used to hold panels in place are 
sometimes partly above the surrounding rails. They are then called 
raised mouldings to distinguish them from flush mouldings which are 
level with the rail. Mouldings ser\'e various practical purposes but 



62 



CASEJrORK. 



their aesthetic effect is to be thought of. They produce much the same 
result, when used as a frame, that a Une border does about a drawing. 
The effect of hght and shade on a moulding is to produce a series of 
lines that vary indefinitely, according to the proportions of the mould- 
ings and its parts. A deep undercut moulding gives a heavy dark 
shadow, a black line ; and a narrow fiat moulding a light shadow ; a 
fine line. 





^--v.^ 



TKICKnW in(REA^ED. 



THlCKriL'/:. DIMItllSHtD. 



/ 





[ffect or nouLDincs. 

The position of the moulding in relation to the eye may also appar- 
ently increase or diminish its members. If it is placed- above or be- 
low the eye so the mouldings ascends or descends, respectively, 
and recede from the eye the member will diminish in size appearing 
thinner than it is. On the other hand, if the moulding descends or 
ascends respectively the member will appear thicker than it really is. 

When a moulded member is composed of two or more of the sim- 
ple forms described above it owes its charm somewhat to the intro- 
duction of a fillet which separates each moulding from that adjoining. 
An important combination of mouldings is their use in the crown 
members of cabinets. We have already called attention to having 
this proportioned to the size of the body below ; in addition, it should 
not project too much. If its overhang is not greater than its depth it 
will usually look well but in many instances it will be found desirable 
to keep somewhat within this limit. 

Mouldings may be ornamented by carving and when so treated 



CASE CONSTRUCTION 



Plate Xffl. 



CCRHKt 




KBATE, TO RICEIVt SK\ 
or TAP 



nmi TO mm mk 



m 



CONSTRrCTIO.W 



care nuisl bo taken to preserve their j^^eneral form. It is usual on 
architectural members to employ the profile of the moulding as the 
leading line of the ornaments upon it. Thus, the fillet may be dec- 
orated by vertical lines as flutes, fret, or dentils ; the bead, by "pearls," 
bead and spindle ; the torus by the guilloche ; the ovolo, by an egg and 
dart; and the cymas, by the heart ornament, etc. 

Cases are composed of a top, a bottom, and uprights between which 
are panels of wood or glass. Plate XIII. shows a section of a cabinet 
with the parts separated so as to illustrate how it is constructed. 
The column forming the corner post is doweled to the base and cor- 
nice. The sides and back are panelled and are either doweled or re- 
bated to the other parts. The bottom and top is composed of a frame 

JOINTS 



PLAIM DOVETAIL 



LAP DOVf_T/l|L 



MITRED DOVETAIL 




MORTISE AMD TEMOM 



DOWEL JOIMT 




surrounding a panel. In order to build all parts together use is made 
of several kinds of joints. Though these are not always shown on 
the drawings it is desirable that the draughtman be familiar with them. 
They may be arranged in three groups, comprising those commonly 
used in furniture construction ; the butt, the angle, and the framing 
joint. 



66 CASEWORK. 

The butt-joint is employed when two pieces of wood are joined to- 
gether in the same plane. The simplest form is when the edges of the 
two pieces are brought together and held by glue, no other connect- 
ing medium being used. This is often sufficient, and when properly 
made is quite strong. It is almost invisible in the majority of woods 
when made so the grain is parallel with the line of contact. 

When a stronger method is required, and one side of the pieces 
joined is hidden from view, blocks are glued across the joint, on the 
unexposed surface, so as to stiffen it. The grain of these blocks must 
be parallel with that of the joined pieces that shrinkage may not 
loosen, or cause them to crack. 

Another way of uniting the edges of two boards is by the tongue 
and groove. A tongue, or projecting piece, along the middle of the 
edge of one piece is matched to a groove in the edge of the other. 
Sometimes in place of this, a groove is cut in the edge of each of the 
boards throughout their entire length. Into these grooves is then 
glued a hardwood strip, called the tongue or slip-feather, uniting the 
two pieces. 

The most popular joint w^ith the cabinet-maker is the dowel-joint. 
It is, perhaps, the best where the wood is of sufficient thickness to per- 
mit its use. A dowel is a wooden pin used for fastening two pieces of 
wood together by inserting part of its length into one piece, the rest 
entering a corresponding hole in the other. Sometimes a number of 
dowels are fitted tightly into holes bored for them in one of the pieces 
to be joined and the other has corresponding holes bored in it, in 
which the dowels also fit tightly when the two pieces are glued to- 
gether. 

Angle joints are frequently mitred. That is the joined edges are 
cut at a bevel bisecting the angle between them when united. The 
union is made by butting the pieces and gluing them together. As 
this does not make a strong joint in itself it is stiffened in various 
ways. One method is to drive small bits of corrugated metal in the 
ends of the pieces, and across the joint, thus binding the parts to- 
gether. At other times corner blocks are glued on the inner side of 
the mitred angle. 

For rounded corners, or when a mitred angle is not wanted, the 
two pieces may be tongued and grooved together. The tongue is 
on the inner edge of one of the pieces so that as much wood as possi- 
ble is retained outside the groove on the other. The best and strong- 
est method of joining two pieces at an angle is by dovetailing. When 



JOIXTS. 67 

the joiiu is made so the full thickness of each piece joined is visible, 
and the shape of each dovetail can be seen, the joint is a plain dove- 
tail. The lapped dovetail is constructed so the joint is seen at the 
side only, and is connnonly used for fastening the sides and front of 
drawers together. When it is desirable to have all indications of the 
dovetailing hidden a combination of the mitre and dovetail is used in 
which the dovetails are cut in part of the thickness of the wood and 
the mitre in the remainder. Such a joint is a mitred dovetail. 

The usual framing joints used by furniture makers are the dowel- 
joint, and the mortise and tenon. (See also page 17.) 

The true mortise (cavity) is cut near the end of one piece to receive 
the tongue (tenon) of the other. The tenon is not always the full 
width of the piece on which it is cut but often is narrower. 

When framing for a series of panels, a groove is sunk the whole 
length of two of the framing pieces (those extending horizontally, 
railed rails), and those at right angles to them (vertical pieces be- 
tween the panels, the stiles) have tenons cut on them which fit in the 
grooves. These grooves also receive the panels. This method avoids 
cutting a mortise for each tenon and the name given to the joint is 
stub-tenon. 

When two pieces are joined by cutting away half the thickness of 
each, and then lapping them together they are said to be halved. 
Such a joint is sometimes combined with a mitre so that where ex- 
posed to view it appears like any mitred joint. It is then said to be 
halved-mitred. 

Broad surfaces of casework are panelled partially as a means of 
decoration but principally for constructive reasons. If the surface 
were made from a solid board it would soon crack and warp as the 
wood became dryer. It might be built up and veneered as has been 
described for table tops (page 18), and this is occasionally done, but 
as panelling gives a change of plane with a chance for light and shade 
it is more commonly used. 

The panels are, however, veneered and cross-veneered on both 
sides of a core whenever perfect workmanship is wanted. 

Panels are surrounded by a frame which may be grooved to receive 
them, but a better way is to rebate the frame and hold the panels in 
by mouldings. Three ways of doing this are shown on plate XIV. 
In the joiner's method either a groove is worked in the styles of the 
surrounding frame to hold the panel, and then the moulding is placed 
in the angle against the panel : or, a rebate is cut in which both panel 
and moulding are set. 



68 CASEWORK. • 

In either case, if the moulding is nailed in. the nail will probably 
be driven directly in the panel or else diagonally through both the 
edge of the panel and rail. In the first instance any shrinkage of the 
panel causes a crack to appear between the frame and the moulding. 

To avoid this a rebate can be cut in the moulding, when it is large 
enough to permit, so it will lap over on the frame a little and hide the 
joint. 

But here although (see illustration) the nail holds the moulding 
close against the frame, it also catches the edge of the panel and pre- 
vents it moving. The result is that cracks appear in the panel itself. 

It does not improve matters much if the moulding is glued in for 
the glue almost always binds both moulding and panel to the frame 
so that a rupture will occur somewhere. 

The cabinet-maker avoids these difificulties. First, he cuts a rebate 
in the frame on the finish side. In this the moulding is glued solidly 
so it becomes a part of the frame itself. When the glue is dry the 
varnished panel is set in from the back and held in place by plain 
mouldings nailed to the frame. This leaves the panel loose and free 
to move should shrinkage take place. The object in varnishing the 
panel before setting it is that if any movement does occur it will not 
be seen by the exposure of a line of unfinished wood. 

Flush panels are so named because their surface is level with the 
surrounding frame. They are set in a rebate from the back and se- 
cured by a nailed moulding. In most cases a bead is run all round 
the edge of the panel so as to hide the joint between it and the frame. 
Such panels are used for the back of cases and in places where no 
decorative effect is wanted. 

Panels may have the edges beveled or rebated below their sur- 
face, so as to produce a sort of border around the panel itself. Such 
panels are sometimes spoken of as raised panels to distinguish them 
from a flat, even surface. 

The surface of a panel is made of more carefully selected wood than 
that used for mouldings, and rails, with the intention of having a 
handsome grain. Veneers are chosen that have been cut from a por- 
tion of a log furnishing strong markings, or "figures," when polished, 
and these are sometimes cut in smaller pieces either half or quarter 
the size of the panel, and placed together so the lines of the grain will 
form a pattern or a "picture." At other times a design is inlaid on 
the panel, or it is carved. The simplest form of carved panel is that 
with the surface moulded to resemble, more or less, the folds of drap- 
ery, and called linen, or parchment panels. 



MOULDINGS AND PANELS 



FuTt XIV. 



ir" 



UJ - 




riLLET. BEAD. CAVETTO. OVOLO. CYMA RECTA AMD WVtRSA. SCOiiA. T0RU5. 

OQtE. 

CLA53IC nOULDmQ5 



-^. 



,.,-Y^— 



-^:^1 



J> 



l^^f^ 



FLUSH PAME-L. JOIMER^ tltTHop, CABINET MAKERS MtTHOJ* . 

MtTH0D3 Of SnilNG PAhEb 



ub Crb 



.ImMI 







DEVELLED PANEL INLAYfP. 'PAHCHHENT PAMEL. CARVED PANEL 

treatheut ofthepamelsukface 





ro^n or panels 




QLAS5 FULL SIZE 
A^ A PAtlEL 



QLAiS ON BL0CK5 MIRKORS DtVELltO GLA«. 

fRAniriG GLA53 ^^ 



CL.IZIXC. 71 

r>\- arraiii^int;- the nK)iiI(linL;s around llal panels so as to produce 
forms with a broken outline the stift* rectangular panel is avoided. 
Three varieties are shown on Plate Xi\ . 

Hookcases, china cabinets, and others of the same class of case 
work have portions of their sides .c^Iazed either with clear fijlass or 
mirrors. 

In the best of glazed work plate glass is used, ])ut where something 
less expensive is wanted the best quality of (hnijjle thick sheet glass 
is used. Anything poorer than this should not be jjlaced in good 
work. Mirrors should always be of plate glass. Glass set in doors or 
substituted for panel work is cut the full size of the rebate opening 
in the frame and is held in place by a loose moulding the same as a 
panel. Plate XIV. It is only when some special condition requires 
it that the glass is secured in place by putty and glaziers' points in- 
stead of the loose moulding. 

Mirrors are not often cut to the full size, Init arc a trifle smaller 
than the rebate measure and the glass is held in place by a number of 
triangular blocks about three inches long placed at intervals in the 
rebate. These blocks serve to wedge the glass securely in place that 
it may not slide in the rebate, and they also reduce to a minimum the 
surface of wood in contact with the coating on the back of the mirror. 

The silvering is protected from injury by a panelled back board 
screwed to the frame after the glass is fastened in. This backboard 
must not touch the mirror at any point. 

The glass is held in front by a moulding set in a rebate, as we 
have described for panelling. 

Doors are composed of a framework enclosing panels. The up- 
rights of the frame are the stiles and the horizontal parts are the rails. 
They are hung either with hinges or pivots. The former are more or 
less visible, but the latter are concealed. Plate XV. illustrates various 
applications of these methods, No. i shows the door hung with butts 
and without a rebate for the door to shut against. Such a door would 
be used in cabinets where the uninterrupted joint between the edge of 
the door and the side of the case is not objectionable. Notice also 
that unless the door can swing through an arc of 180° the width of the 
opening is reduced by about the thickness of the door ; or A in the 
illustration. In most instances a rebate to receive the door is desir- 
able ; and still the door hung wath butts would reduce the size of the 
opening as at A, No. 2, unless the re1)ate is as deep as the door is 
thick. No. 3. 



yz CASEWORK. 

Doors for cabinels having drawers within are hung this latter way, 
as it enables one to pull out the drawer though the door is open at the 
right angle only. No. 4 shows how a door may be hung when the 
design calls for a pilaster on the corner of the case and yet the condi- 
tions require that a maximum width be given to the interior. An ar- 
ticle having the door hung in this manner must stand sufficiently 
away from the wall or other pieces of furniture to permit the pilaster 
to turn on the axis of the hinge. 




Pill OP. CEMTKL 
HlhOL 



The pivot, pin, or center hinge is invisil)le and in high-class work 
this is an advantage. It is also strong, and is screwed to the upper 
edge of the top rail, and the lower edge of the bottom rail of the door 
in a position such that a strain does not start the screws. The illus- 
tration shows what it is like. There are two bars of metal narrow 
enough to be entirely concealed by the thickness of the door. In one 
of these bars is a hole receiving a pin, on the other bar. One of the 
bars, that with the socket, is set in the frame receiving the door, the 
other is oh the door itself, and when complete the door turns on the 
pin as an axis. 

It is well to set the pivot on a line through the middli' of the thick- 
ness of the door; and about half the thickness of the door, plus an 
eighth of an inch, away from the post against which the door turns. 
That is, C = B + -J inch. No. 5 shows a pivoted door in a position 
where it reduces the width of the door opening, and No. 6 shows the 
pivoted edge of the door turning in a hollow prepared for it and 
provided with stops against which the edge of the door strikes cither 
when open or shut. 

The thickness of door rails is dependent entirely on the size and 
design of the door ; but the bottom rail is made a little wider than the 
top rail and side stiles which are of the same width. 

The meeting stiles of a pair of doors are sometimes rebated, so the 
joint does not extend .'Straight throug-h. 



HANGING DOORS AND LIDS 



© 



© 



©^ 



L 



aH 



Plate XV. 



J' 







ZSI 



© 




© 



< S':-- 






© 

■AH ^ Y 




\ / 




siinixc /)()()A'.v, 



Sliding (!(Hir,- may he provided willi rollers at the bottom, or the 
ta\\ or tJKv may slide in a ^rt)ove without aids for reducing- friction. 
Slidiii!^ duois arc ot'len in ])airs and then it is necessary to arran.tje 
th.-; tliev close liLluK a; the nrjctim^- stiles whicli overlap a little. 




l^tLTING 5T1U5 OF HiriQtD DOORO. 



%;;#:^/..;....wa^v.x.xv^^^^^^^ 



""1 



© 



pM^m^^^^; 




[J[[Tin(i STILLS. Of XlDlttQ 000^3. 



There is more or less space between the doors, due to the thickness 
of a "parting strip," at the bottom and top, forming the groove in 
which the door slides. To close this space a thin strip sufficiently 
wide to extend across it is fastened to the back edge of each door. 
When the doors are closed these two strips are in contact and lap 
over each other. 

Desk lids mav be considered as doors hung by the bottom rail, but 



76 



CASEllVRK. 



they seldom open wider than an angle approximately 90', and the 
method of hinging is dependent on the way the lid is supported. 

When ordinary butts are used it is necessary to have slides that 
pull out beneath the lid for it to rest on, or else metal elbow-pieces, 
chains, or quadrants are fastened above. Otherwise the weight of a 
person's arms on the lid wdien it is dow^n wall break the hinges. 

Illustration No. 7, Plate XV., represents a section of a lid hung in 
this way ; and No. 8 is a method without slides or quadrants that may 
be used for lids of cabinets where no great weight is to come on them 
and butts are used. Here the hinge is not directly on the edge of the 
lid, but is set a little beyond it, the lid and hanging stile having been 
cut on a bevel to permit the lid swinging down to the horizontal. A 
portion of the case (X) just below the lid is also arranged so the lid 
when down will rest on it. 

The strongest lid hinge is the pivot No. 9, Plate X\'. The lid 
when down presses against Y and Z. and the hinge itself is con- 
-tructed so as to take jiart oi the strain. 



ECRtTAR^ HlhGE.. 




It is practically the same as the pin hinge described alcove. The 
part serving as a socket for the pin is. however, shaped somewhat like 
a rectangle with a small projecting square on one side near one cor- 
ner. The other corner of the side from which this square projects is 
rounded ofT as a quadrant with the socket for a center. The pin bar 
is also extended sufficiently to receive a second pin located so that it 
just clears the edge of the quadrant, when the two parts of the hinge 
are placed together, and will strike against the projecting piece of the 
socket plate. 

If now the socket plate is properly fastened to the side of the cab- 
inet the parts of the hinge are in the position shown in the illustration, 
when the lid is turned down. The second pin of the bar strikes against 
the projection on the socket plate, and acts as a stop. This brings 
the greater strain on the metal of the hinge itself. The location of the 
]jivot on the edge of the stiles is such that the screws are not pulled 
out if an extra strain is put on them. As in every drop lid. there is 



DESK LIDS. yy 

more or kss levtrat;c ihcir will be sonic spring when wciglil is ap- 
plied to it. It is. therciorc. a(lvisal)le to use aids for snpport ; cither 
quadrants or braces. 

The lid for small compartments of desks, or the desk lid itself may 
be hung- so as to raise and then slide back out of the way. A section 
of a lid of this kind is given in No. lO, Plate XV. The dotted line 
shows the position of the lid raised and ready to be pushed back into 
the pocket. When the lid is down the upper edge strikes against the 
back of a moulding so as to hide entirely the pocket into which it 
slides when raised. The hinge is on the lower edge of a rebate cut in 
the lid. This rebate matches a similar one cut in a strip fitted so as to 
slide easily in the pocket, yet provided with stops to prevent its be- 
ing pulled out. When the lid is raised this guide and the lid halve 
together so as to become practically one piece. 

The cylinder top desk is made so the lid will slide back into a 
pocket, the edges of the lid moving in grooves cut in the sides of the 
desk. When the desk is small a lid working in this way does not 
slide back sufficiently to expose a convenient writing surface. The 
difficulty is overcome by making the writing surface so it may be 
f)ulled out about two-thirds the depth of the desk, and the pigeon 
holes with the inkstand, etc., may be placed immediately above at 
the back of the desk. This arrangement makes quite a roomy writ- 
ing table of one that would otherwise be small. It is convenient to 
construct such desks so one operation will pull out the slide, and 
open the lid instead of requiring each movement to take place sep- 
arately. 

There are many ways of doing this and the one illustrated (No. ii, 
Plate XV.) is by Sheraton. A metal bar is pivoted to the edge of the 
lid near the back, and it is similarly attached to the slide. This bar 
has a slot cut at the lower end in which the pivot on the slide may 
move, and another slot near the middle in which moves a pivoted 
guide attached to the side of the desk. This latter pivot is the cen- 
tral point about which turns the bar connecting the slide and lid, so 
when either is moved the other moves also. There are two of these 
connecting bars one at each end of the desk. 

Shelving in cabinets, and bookcases are made so as to be adjustable 
to any heights. Sometimes they are supported by four pins, one at 
each corner of the shelf, placed in holes bored in the sides of the case. 
These holes are one inch or more apart and by changing the location 
of the pins the shelf is adjusted. 



78 



CASEWORK. 



At other times four vertical notched strips are fastened to the ends 
of the case, two at each side, and in the notches cleats are placed on 
which the shelves rest. By shifting the cleats the shelves are placed 
as desired. 

The following is a table of dimensions taken from existing exam- 
ples of case work: 

DIMENSIONS OF CASEWORK. 

, Body. -^ 

Variety. Width. Depth. Height. Remarks. 

Bureau 45 20% 36i^ 

51 23 37% 

48 22 3(5% 

54 20 42 

Bookkeepers' desk 60 33 42 

" (iO 32 44 Deck 11 ins., slope 22. 

Chiffonnier 39 20 4S 

3(i 20 51 

Cheval glass 25 . . 65 

Commode 1<> 16 31 

Sideboard 84 32 30 

Wardrobe 36 19 69 

54 24 96 

Note: .All dimensions are in inches. 

Bedsteads. 

Bedsteads have a head board, a foot board, and two side rails. The 
head and foot board are often panelled, and sometimes the side rails 
also. In the old style bedstead there were four posts. These were 
joined together in pairs by a rail above which was a second rail more 
or less elaborately decorated by sawing, carving, turning or panelling, 
thus making the head and foot boards according to the position they 
occupied when united by two rails that formed the sides of the bed- 
stead. 

The side rails, with the lower ones of the head and foot board 
formed the frame across which cords were stretched to support the 
mattress. In the modern bedsteads the arrangement is much the same 
except that in many of them the post is reduced to its lowest terms 
and exists only as the stile for the panel work of which the head and 
foot board is composed. 

The side rails are made much wider than in olden times, that they 
may hide the box spring which has taken the place of the cording, 
and they are constructed so they may be removed and replaced as de- 
sired. There are many contrivances for accomplishing this, each 
manufacturer having his preference.. 



BEDSTEADS. 



79 



A strong and substantial way is shown in the illustration. 

The ends of the rails are provided with tenons, that fit mortises in 
the posts of head and foot board, and with screws that work in nuts 
sunk in the posts. These screws fasten the rails and end boards se- 
curely together while the tenons stiffen the joint, preventing any 
twisting of the sides. 




On the lower edge of the side rails, inside, is a ledge to support the 
spring. The box spring is sometimes supported on slats, and some- 
times on the side rail of the bedstead, a cleat having been placed on 
it so as to rest on the ledge of the rails. 

The mattress is placed on the springs. In designing a bedstead it 
ought to be constructed so the top of the mattress will not be much 
over twenty-five inches above the floor. 

Bed slats are about an inch thick, a double box spring about ten 
inches thick, and a good mattress seven inches thick. 

To keep within the limit of height, then, the upper edge of the sup- 
port for the slats should not be more than seven inches from the 
floor. But slats are sometimes omitted and then the side rails may be 
set higher as the springs can hang a little below them without being 
seen. 



8o CASEWORK. 

The following is a table of measurements of bedsteads: 

DIMENSIONS OF BEDSTEADS. 

I Inside. — -^ 

Variety. Length. Widtli. 

Single 78 42 

78 42 

Double bed 78 SSVa 

" 78 56 

Ncte: All dimensions are in inches. 





Width. Height. 


r-Height.--^ 


Side Bottom 


Foot. Head. 


Rail. Side Rail. 


40 62 


9y2 9% 


41 60 


10 10 


42 63 


11 10% 


36 67 


13 9y2 



CHAP'JKR \ . 
The Drawer. Plate XVI. 

Nearly every article of furniture may l)e provided with a drawer : 
and the ease with which it slides, and its accuracy of fitting are tests 
of good workmanship. To have a wide, deep drawer slide so easily 
that the pressure of a finger placed against the front at one end is 
sufficient to move it, means careful adjustment, skilled labor, and the 
best materials. 

The drawer is composed of a front, back, two sides and a bottom. 
The front is the only part visible when the drawer is closed, and upon 
its treatment depends the decorative value of the drawer. It may be 
considered as a panel surrounded by mouldings ; or it may be left 
plain, depending on the hardware for its ornamentation. 

If the front is on the same plane as the surrounding surfaces of the 
case the line of the joint about the drawer is too clearly defined. It 
is better to hide this joint by allowing the drawer to slide in a six- 
teenth of an inch beyond the face of the framework, or to place a bead 
all round the edge of the drawer. 

Sometimes the front of the drawer has its edge rebated so that in- 
stead of sliding into the pocket beyond the surface of the case it pro- 
jects beyond, and the lip of the rebate covers the joint around the 
drawer. The sides of the drawer are dovetailed to the front and the 
bottom is either grooved directly in the sides or in strips glued to 
them. This latter method is used when the sides are too thin for 
grooving. The full thickness of the bottom is not grooved into the 
front and sides, but its edge is reduced in thickness by bevelling, or 
rebating, thus permitting the bottom to be placed low without making 
the portion of the sides below the groove too thin. 

The space between the lower edge of the drawer front and the 
bottom at its thickest part is about one-eighth inch. Hence the in- 
terior depth of a drawer is the depth of the front minus the thickness 
of the bottom plus one-eighth inch. The average drawer having a 



82 THE DRAWER. 

bottom of half an inch would, therefore, have an interior depth five- 
eighths of an inch less than it appears on the front. Wide drawers, 
like those extending the full width of a bureau, sometimes have the 
bottom divided through the middle, from front to back, by a rail or 
muntin. This prevents the bottom from bending beneath the weight 
placed on it and also decreases the tendency to warp. The bottom 
should be long enough to extend beyond the back piece. It is also 
grooved into the front, where it is fastened, but it ought not to be 
secured elsewhere. This method of construction admits of the 
bottom shrinking, but as it is fastened on the front only and fi-ee to 
move elsf'where it will not crack, and the extra length beyond the 
back prevents an opening appearing at that end. 

The back may be grooved or dovetailed in the sides. The dimen- 
sions of the different parts are dependent on the size of the drawer. 
For ordinary work the front is seldom more than seven-eighths inch 
thick ; and the sides, bottom and back more than one-half inch. 

In casework the drawer slides in a pocket, and often there are 
several drawers, one above the other. When enclosed the drawer 
slides on a supporting frame, the front rail of which is called the 
"bearer," and the side rails "runners." Close against the sides 
and supported by the runners are narrow strips of wood that serve to 
keep the drawer in place ; these are the "guides." 

Sometimes the frame between the drawers is open, and if one of 
the series is removed that beneath may be emptied by reaching 
through the opening above. In better work the frame is filled with 
a panel, called a dust panel, that prevents this. 

The drawer is not always enclosed. Sometimes it is hung beneath 
a table top and exposed to view. When used in this way cleats are 
fastened to the outer surface of the sides and slide in grooved pieces 
screwed to the underside of the table top. If the cleats set close to 
the upper edge of the sides of the drawer they increase the thickness 
of this edge which is in contact with the under surface of the table 
top. As this surface may not be true the drawer will not work 
smoothly unless hung loosely. 

A better arrangement is the one illustrated with the cleat set a little 
below the edge of the drawer, and fitted smoothly in the grooved 
bearer. The edge of the drawer may then be set so as not to rub 
against the top of the table, and yet the drawer is held secure by the 
cleats sliding in the grooved supports. Sometimes the groove is in 
the side of the drawer, and the bearer is provided with a tongue that 
fits it. reversing the method just described. 



fLA-^XVI. 



THE DRAWER 








• X ,r fl^oNT 



, !<- ' r'^^-^X-^^X 





CwNHEIt 



3ECT|0f1 THROUGH FRONT. 



•SECTION THROUGH BACK AND SlDC 




DRAWER WITH SLIDES. 85 

When it is desirable to place a drawer in a piece of furniture having 
a triangular plan, as for instance a corner cabinet, the guides at the 
side are useless, as the drawer does not come in contact with them 
except when pushed in. As soon as the drawer is pulled out ever so 
little it no longer fills the width of the pocket. If it is necessary to 
slide a drawer of this shape a rail is placed in the middle of the bottom 
the length of the drawer from front to back. The underside of this 
rail is grooved over a tongued strip immediately beneath it, that 
serves as a guide to keep the drawer in the middle of the pocket. 
Such an arrangement is not always feasible, and then the triangular 
drawer is pivoted at the front edge, so instead of sliding it swings out 
of the pocket. 

For music cabinets, library cases, etc., the use of the drawer may 
make it necessary to pull it out sui^ciently that the entire length can 
be seen. A drawer constructed in the usual way would, if pulled out 
so far, fall to the floor as soon as the hand left it. A drawer is made, 
however, with slides at the sides that support it when out its full 
length. The illustration shows such a method. The side of the 
drawer is about twice as thick as ordinarily, and the lower portion is 
rebated about half its depth and thickness. In this rebate a slide is 
fitted, exactly filling it. The rear end of the slide is increased in width 
to the full depth of the drawer. When the drawer is closed the slide 
and the side of the drawer are practically one ; when the drawer is 
])ulled out to a fixed point the slide catches against a stop and does 
not move any further, but the drawer then moves along the slide until 
it is nearly, or entirely, out of the pocket, when it is stopped by a pin 
moving in a groove in the side of the slide. The drawer is then resting 
entirely on the slides, which are sufificiently far in the pocket to carry 
the weight, and the widened portion at the rear end of them filling the 
space between the runners, prevents upsetting. 

When a pair of doors closes against a case of drawers another 
system may be used in place of the above. The doors can be hung so 
as to open to a position in the plane of the sides of the cabinet and 
held there by stops. Their inner surface may also be provided with 
runners on which the drawer can slide when it is pulled out beyond 
the pocket. 



CHAPTER VI. 
Ornamentation of Furniture, 

IN addition to the general outline and proportion of furniture, its 
appearance is dependent upon ornamentation. This should not, 
however, become so important as to destroy the constructive elements 
or the utility. A properly designed article may be quite as pleasing 
when entirely devoid of ornament as when its surfaces are covered by 
enrichments of some sort. 

In many instances what is termed ornament is but a roughening or 
coloring of the surface in hopes to divert the attention from bad forms 
or poor construction. It is understood that woodwork free from sur- 
face ornament must be well made, the wood carefully selected, and 
care taken to use together pieces of the same color and figure of grain. 
The joints unless properly made become conspicuous, exposing the 
poor workmanship. The finish, that is the varnishing and rubbing, 
must be well done that the wood may not appear to be covered by a 
candied surface full of lumps and streaks. Work well made and 
finished feels to the hand almost as soft and smooth as silk velvet, 
while to the eye the grain of the wood shows clear and sparkling be- 
neath the thin well-rubbed film of varnish which fills the pores yet 
scarcely more than covers the surface. In such work the beauty is 
dependent upon pleasing outlines, good proportions and workman- 
ship. The smallest details, like softening the angle, rounding a 
corner, etc., require attention because of their influence on the appear- 
ance of the whole. 

There are times when it is desirable to do more than fill the de- 
mands of service, and additional expense may be incurred by en- 
riching the simple form with decoration. 

There are several methods of doing this. Perhaps the most diffi- 
cult to do well, and yet the most common, is carving. It can be used 
as a surface ornament, treated as a panel, either cut below the surface 
of the wood or in relief. The constructive parts, as posts, rails, 



C.lh'l IXC. S; 

mouklings, etc., may lie also in oniamental forms. In the iirst in- 
stance, panel work, the problem is one of designins: an ornament to 
properly fill the space, keeping in mind the effect of light and shade. 
The pattern is in relief of varying planes, and the different parts must 
be of a size that will be in keeping with the space filled as will as ihc 
entire article. 

The ornament may closely fill the whole space or be loosely scat- 
tered over the surface, but in either instance it should seem to belong 
where it is, and not as if it might be placed elsewhere or was lloatim; 
about in a space much too large for it. 

In some kinds of furniture may be seen small ornaments in high 
relief cut from a block glued in the middle of a plain surface many 
times the length and width of the ornament. Such carving appears 
as if stuck on, even if it is well executed, for it is wrongly placed and 
inadequate to the space it occupies. It is not because it is glued >n 
that makes it uninteresting, as might be supposed, but because it i^ 
badly designed. Had the surface of the solid wood been cir away 
to leave carving of the same design in relief a similar feeling of its 
'having been applied would exist. Nevertheless the practice of gluing 
en carving should be discouraged. 

When the constructive parts are carved care should be taken to 
design the ornament so the contour of the part is not destroyed. In- 
stead of detracting from the form it ought to enforce it. This may he 
accomplished by keeping the principal masses of the ornament \vell 
within the boundary lines of the part decorated and by making tl.'c 
ornamental growths follow the direction of the structural lines. 

If the carving is on the surface of a chair back where it may be 
leaned against it should not be of such a high relief as to be disagree- 
able or so sharp as to be dangerous to the clothing. Tlie illustration 
given (frontispiece) here is an example of over ornamentation and ex- 
quisite carving misplaced. It is a chair with the arm post finely and 
skilfully carved, but so delicate in its detail as to be almost too frail 
for practical use. And so rough and sharp are the angles that should 
a delicate dress be pulled across it it would probably be torn. 

Plain surfaces have quite as much value as those that are orna- 
mented, and by bringing them in conjunction so as to secure a con- 
trast the best results are obtained. 

It has been mentioned in a previous chapter (page lo) that the 
wood used for the construction has an influence on the design. This 
is especially true of carved ornament. Although it may be possible 



88 ORNAMEN TA T10N.» 

to do delicate carving in the coarse-grained woods it is certainly not 
good taste to do so. In the close-grained woods, like satinwood, 
mahogany and maple, we expect to see delicate and fine work, while 
in oak, ash and walnut we at once look for a dififerent sort of thing. 

Carved surfaces with the background cut entirely through, that is 
perforated, are serviceable forms of ornamentation for chairs, tables, 
and occasionally for case work. 

What has been said relative to surface carving is applicable to this 
style of work. The design ought to be of a kind in which the spaces 
and the solids balance each other properly, and no portion should be 
cut around so as to leave it joined to the rest of the work at one 
point only. Aside from the poor appearance of such a form it is weak 
in construction and likely to split off. 

Plate XVII. illustrates perforated carving in use on chair backs 
and shows how the parts are joined. It will be noticed that the per- 
forated ornament is confined to the slat in the middle of the back, 
one-half of which is drawn as it appears when finished, while the other 
half is only blocked out ready for ornament. 

This is quite clear in the shield back design, where the middle slat 
is simple in form. The other chair has a more elaborate slat and its 
character as such is almost hidden by the form of the ornament. It 
should be noticed in designing a back of this sort that the general out- 
lines are first determined, keeping in mind the constructive prin- 
ciples. In the chair illustrated the outline of the back is drawn first, 
next the ellipses composing the slat, and finally the carving. This 
latter follows carefully the lines of the composition so as not to de- 
stroy the original forms. The acanthus on the sides of the center 
ellipse lap close about it, and as the opening in the middle of this 
ellipse was too large for practical purposes or appearance, the group 
of husk ornaments was placed in the middle. 

Where the top of the slat, in the form of a horizontal ellipse, joins 
the top rail of the back a dowel i& placed. The thickness of the ma- 
terial included in the outlines of the ellipse is hardly sufficient to make 
a strong joint, and to have increased the thickness at this point only 
would have destroyed the appearance of the design unless some way 
had been taken to prevent it. 

This was done by turning a scroll at the point where the dowel oc- 
curs and filling in between the scroll and top rail with a small acan- 
thus. This gives the increased material without injuring the ap- 
pearance, and is a rational method of using carved ornament. 



Mi:r.ii. .u'i'iKjrii. 91 

.\])i)li(|uc of metal work is a furni of relief ornamentation in many 
ropects closely related to carving-. It may be either cast or wroug-ht. 
Castings, called ormolu, are usually of brass plated with gold and 
fmislud a dull color. They are especially used in the styles of Louis 
XW, Louis X\'l. and Empire. Jn the Louis XV. style much of the 
ornament is applied in places where carving might have been used, 
and it is properly joined with the lines of the article so as to become a 
part of them. In the Louis XVL to some degree, and in the Empire 
style almost entirely, the applique ornaments are fastened directly on 
a plain surface without any relation to the construction whatever, as 
the article is complete without them. The beauty of their use depends 
on the arrangement of the pieces in relation to each other, the way 
they fill the space which they occupy, and on the design and execu- 
tion of the metal work itself. Much of the metal work in ordinary 
use is poor in both respects. Perhaps the design is good and the 
pattern was well modelled, but so many copies have been made, each 
cast from a previous moulding instead of from the original pattern, 
that all form and crispness is lost. Such work is neither handsome 
or decorative, and the designer should discourage its use whenever 
he can. In the best French examples applique metal work is care- 
fully cast, exquisitely chased, so it becomes a beautiful piece of work- 
manship, and it may be admired as such even though its use is not 
approved. When wrought metal work is applied to furniture it is 
usually in the form of hinge plates, lock plates, or ornamented straps 
binding parts of the woodwork together. Furniture decorated in this 
way is best made of a coarse-grained wood and designed with large 
flat surfaces on which the metal may be applied for ornamental clTect. 
Good results are obtained by sinking the metal work so it is level with 
the wood surface, particularly when in the form of rosettes. 

The markings of the grain of woods used for furniture is in itself 
an ornamentation, and many times it is quite sufficient. But to in- 
crease its decorative effects veneers cut in various ways are used. A 
veneer is a thin slice of wood, and in the choice woods of the furni- 
ture maker many pieces with rich figures in the grain can be had as 
veneers that otherwise could not be obtained in shape to use. Then, 
also, by cutting a log in different ways the beauty of the grain is ex- 
posed so that its value is increased. 

The veneers are not always used entire like so many boards. They 
are sometimes cut in geometrical patterns varying in size, and the 
pieces placed side by side in such a manner that the grain of adjoining 



92 



ORNAMENT ATIOi^. 



pieces runs in different directions, thus covering the surface with an 
almost inconspicuous diaper pattern. 

In this method of using veneers but one kind of wood is required, 
though at times two or more may be used. When a color effect is 
wanted marquetry is used introducing the various colored woods, 
metal, shell, or ivory in the form of ornament on a ground of the 
wood of which the furniture is constructed. 

There are no special difficulties to be avoided in designing a jjattern 
for inlay. Almost any ornament that appears well in flat colors will 
make good inlay, so that the problem is one of designing a conven- 
tional ornament suited to decorate the space when rendered in flat 
colors. 

The nearest approach to inlay is ornament painted on the surface 
of the wood. This has been a common and handsome method of 
decorating furniture, though it is not now popular. One method is to 
treat all the ornament flat similar to inlay ; another is to paint natural 
forms in a realistic way. The ornament is sometimes painted on the 
varnished surface of natural wood, and again it is placed on an 
enamel. In one class of work painting is executed on a panel first 
covered by silver or gold leaf, the design introducing figures, pas- 
toral scenes, architectural compositions, etc. 

The surrounding parts of the article are thickly varnished, and at 
times specks of gold leaf are mixed with the varnish. Such work is 
more or less an imitation of Japanese lacquer work, but is known as 
Verni.« Martin because during the reign of Louis XV. the brothers 
Martin secured the exclusive right to make furniture varnished in 
this way, they claiming to have discovered the secret of making the 
lacquer used. 

There remains another means for ornamenting the plain surface 
of furniture woodwork. That is by burning on it with a metallic 
point an appropriate design. It is a method that lends itself to suc- 
cessful treatment in proper hands. Such examples as are most fre- 
quently seen are not desirable, largely because the patterns burned 
are not suitable. The color effect is. however, charming, running 
from soft brown tones of a pale color to a deep rich black. A com- 
bination of carving and burning gives satisfactory results. The wood 
may be light in color, Hke white maple, and the carving somewhat of 
the Indian (Hindoo) order; this, when complete, has the edges and 
background burned by a cautery. The work then varnished in the 
usual manner resembles a little old ivory carving and is well suited 
to certain rooms. ■* 



nisrosrriox oi- ok-.\.iMi:\T. 



9.^ 



W haicvcr form of oinaiiKiitalion may he used, it shcnild Ijc borne 
in mind tlial no amounl of decoration will make a poorly jjropor- 
tioned or badly formed article good. It may be possible to divert 
the eye for a time from the general shape by placing before it a 
multitude of small details, but these will generally become tiresome 
and the article will then be considered as a whole. 

In all design work it is not a question of how much ornament, bui 
how well the ornament may be designed. It is advisable to use it 
sparingly, erring, if it may be, on the side of too little rather than too 
much. The object of ornament is to decorate the otherwise plain 
surfaces, and if it does not do this it is better left ofif. 

The sources of pleasure in all decorative designs are the beauty of 
forms employed and the sense of study having been given to their 
composition. There is satisfaction in examining a piece of ornament 
to find it has been arranged with some regard to the massing of the 
parts instead of being merely placed at random in a careless way. 
The pleasure of discovering the plan on which an interesting orna- 
ment was built has been experienced by every designer. The foun- 
dation should not be so prominent as to be forced on the mind, but 
it may be so well conceived that a thoughtful study will disclose it 
hidden among the beautiful forms of which the composition is 
made up. 

What may be termed visibility demands attention in the disposi- 
tion of ornament. Much labor and expense are wasted by placing 
the decorative features in positions where they are not seen, or if 
seen it is to a disadvantage. There is no reason for a finely executed 
ornament so near the floor, or far under a table or chair that it can- 
not be seen without getting on the floor. Nor is there any sense in 
decorating the frame of a tabic which is presumably to be covered 
continuously by a cloth. 

Though everyone recognizes the impropriety of the bad disposition 
of ornament, in this respect, it is not easily guarded against. The de- 
signer will find, unless he is extremely careful, that he has indicated 
on his drawings work that will lie entirely lost to view. 



CHAPTER VII. 
Theories of Design, Rendering, Etc. 

IT is necessary that the designer should be familiar with the his- 
toric styles of architecture and furniture. He should also study 
the characteristic forms and ornamental details of each period. This 
will enable him to recognize the kind of furniture needed to har- 
monize with surroundings, learn what has been made and store his 
mind with material that suggests new forms and ideas. In many in- 
stances the designer is required to make his work correspond with a 
historic style ; then his best course is to hunt up good existing ex- 
amples of the style (not necessarily the articles he is working on, but 
any in the style), and with these before him try to give their char- 
acter to the problem. When not restricted in any way he should 
work out the forms suggested by the purpose for which the furniture 
is used. Study this purpose and consider the character of the ma- 
terial used in meeting it. By working with a knowledge of these re- 
quirements a design may be made that does not resemble any style. 
It is more probable, however, a close adherence to the demands of the 
problem will lead to the employment of a style, and it is well that it 
should, as then some good example may be taken as a model. There 
are excellent models for modern furniture in all styles, though many 
of them may not be suited to exact reproduction owing to change of 
customs. But when possible furniture should have the character- 
istics of some recognized style. 

Many poor designs are due to a striving to produce something new 
and original; different from what is seen every day. The result is 
rarely pleasing. Any article that is designed with the intention of 
making it odd, peculiar, or picturesque is usually poor. Aim to make 
it beautiful, not by disregarding styles but by working upon rational 
methods. The result will be furniture with possibly but little orna- 
ment, and it may be noticeably plain and simple. But it is not de- 
sirable that all furniture should be richly ornamented, and overload- 



THIi SKETCH. 



95 



iiig- with urnanicnt is, of course, to be avoided. Study good ex- 
amples, whether ancient or modern, and if an article appeals to you 
as particularly good try and find why it does so. Make a memo- 
randum of it, and put it in a scrap book for future use. Often a long 
time after seeing several objects it happens that some one of them is 
recalled vividly while the others are forgotten. This impression is 
caused either by the value of the material from which the object is 
made, the beauty, the ingenuity of mechanical construction, or the 
eccentricity of design, and it should be valued accordingly. 

The secret of successful study is the knowing what to select, and 
how to use the material at hand. To know what not to do is almost 
as good as knowing what to do. It cannot be expected that a 
draughtsman will make a good sketch for an article unless he knows 
what he is trying to draw. The object should be as clearly defined in 
the mind as if the completed work was before him, otherwise his 
drawing will be vague and uncertain. 

As the purpose of the sketch is to show someone, usuall) a person 
ignorant of conventional methods of draughtsmanship, the appear- 
ance of the completed furniture, too much care cannot be taken in 
making the sketch accurate and showing the detail in a way that will 
leave little doubt in the mind what is intended, that there may be no 
cause for dissatisfaction with the completed article because the draw- 
ing was not understood. 

The sketch should represent the article correctly, and sufficient 
skill to make such a drawing is obtained by practice. There is no 
better preparation for designing than drawing from existing exam- 
ples of good furniture. By sitting in front of a chair, for instance, 
and drawing it as it appears a knowledge of the way its curves and 
lines should be represented in a sketch are learned. It should be 
drawn as it is seen, not as it is known to be. That is, if the curve of 
the arm looks like a straight line draw it so. If it is necessary that 
the curve appear on the sketch, change the position of the object so 
as to present the line as it is wanted, but do not make the drawing in- 
correct for the sake of presentation. A position can usually be taken 
that will show all that is necessary ; if one drawing does not suffice to 
do so make others rather than draw incorrectly. 

The completed sketch should be as perfect a picture of the article 
as the draughtsman can make it in the time available. This is prefer- 
ably a perspective drawing, though not necessarily one constructed 
mechanicallv. In fact, a freehand drawing made without the use of 



96 THEORIES, ETC. 

the conventional scales is better. Of course a knowledge of the prin- 
ciples and rules for making- mechanical perspective is necessary to 
draw in this way, and if this knowledge is applied as the drawing pro- 
ceeds the result will be satisfactory. 

The object may be drawn of any convenient size and in a position 
that represents it to the best advantage. Certain articles may be 
drawn larger than others and yet appear relatively of the proper di- 
mensions. For instance, a chair may be drawn quite large to show 
all its details, while a cabinet is better sketched at a smaller scale, as 
otherwise it appears too large. 

It is curious that to the uninitiated a large drawing, or photograph, 
represents a large object ; and, vice versa, a small drawing a small 
object. So, when a light, delicate piece of furniture is to be repre- 
sented the sketch should be small and delicately drawn. 

Chairs look well drawn so the front is at an angle of about 45° to 
the picture -plane, and with the corner nearest to the eye at a scale 
of one and a half inch to the foot. 

It is not to be expected that a draughtsman can always have his 
ideas sufficiently formulated to enable him to draw a picture at once. 
Some preliminary work is required. A scale study may be made 
in orthographic projection to determine the proportion of the whole 
and the arrangement of the parts ; and occasionally rough full size 
drawings of parts requiring special study are made. 

These projection drawings may be of any convenient scale, but 
most draughtsmen use one inch or one and one-half inch to the foot. 
With drawings made at these scales before him the draughtsman has 
little difficulty in making his sketch correctly. 

As any design becomes more attractive by a neat presentation, it 
is well to make, first, a study of the sketch with pencil, obtaining the 
general proportions and outline. Then, to save the time of making 
erasures and corrections, lay a piece of tracing paper over this rough 
study and make a more careful drawing. Repeat the process of 
making tracing copies, correcting the drawing each time until a 
satisfactory sketch is obtained. This may then be transferred to 
bristol board for the final rendering or the last tracing copy is 
mounted and used as the final sketch. This is, indeed, a good way 
to do. 

It is advisable to keep the rough studies, tracings and notes made 
when working up a design, either by pasting in scrap books or classi- 
fying in portfolios. They will often be found convenient for dupli- 
cating sketches, suggesting ideas, etc. 



PLATE XXI. 




PEN AND INK SKETCH OF A LOUIS XV. CHAIR. 



Mi-nir.\fs. g,^ 

The niediums and nictliods of rcndtrring the final sketch are de- 
pendent on the personality of the draughtsman. The materials used 
by one designer might not please another, and each may have a differ- 
ent way of presenting the same object. Certain methods have been 
used by the best men and seem to give satisfactory results, but some- 
one may rightfully claim that other ways are equally as good. 

The student can study the advantages and disadvantages of the 
leading methods and choose the one best suited to himself. 

The lead pencil is an exceedingly pleasant medium for furniture 
sketching when used on a smooth, soft card, like ordinary mounting 
board. The point should not be too sharp, and with pencils of differ- 
ent degrees of hardness any amount of elaboration may be given the 
sketch. It may be delicately drawn in outline, or it may.be bold, 
broad and shaded if desired. Pen and ink are, perhaps, the best in- 
struments for a clear indication of the facts. They are used by the 
majority of designers of experience, and many seem to prefer them 
to any other mediums. The inks available are the liquid India inks, 
Prout's brown, and writing fluids. 

India ink has the advantage of giving a solid black line that does 
not change, and that may be photographed for reproduction readily. 
It has the objection of being thick and of making an intensely black 
line, sometimes too heavy on smooth paper unless a fine pen is used. 

Prout's brown ink is not as intense in color as India ink, but it re- 
quires the proper combination of pen and paper to give the fine deli- 
cate line best suited to furniture work. 

Writing fluid when used with a smooth surface writing paper and 
a moderately fine pen gives very pleasing results. It flows readily, 
produces a fine line without the use of an exceedingly fine pen, and 
though not black when first used, it turns shortly after. The paper 
should be selected according to the ink and pen used ; rough paper 
requires a coarse pen, and vice versa. Bristol board, India ink and 
a Gillot 303 pen make a good combination. 

Sketches may be made in color, but this medium sometimes makes 
the furniture appear clumsy and uninteresting. The amount of small 
detail necessary to make a sketch serviceable is lost in a water color 
if it is broadly done, and if it is otherwise the drawing requires con- 
siderable time in rendering, besides seeming hard and mechanical. 
Water color is an excellent medium, however, for sketches of up- 
holstered work. It enables the draughtsman to show the color of the 
goods, the pattern, and also to indicate the tufting with the least 



^'o 



labor. Occasionally a combination of line drawing and color is 
serviceable, but it requires judicious handlino; or the result is any- 
thing but artistic. 

The purchaser of furniture is sometimes at a loss to know how 
much is necessary to furnish a room comfortably, and he can be ad- 
vised most readily by the designer if a plan of the room is made and 
on it the furniture is laid out at scale. A convenient scale is one-half 
inch to the foot. 



MAY 19 1900 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




014 523 748 8 t 



